'Profits sprout like tropical plants': A fresh look at what went wrong with the Eurasian spice trade c. 1550-1800

Journal of Global History

Volumn 3, Issue 3, 2008, Pages 389-418

  Smith, Stefan Halikowski ^a  

^a SWANSEA UNIVERSITY   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 61249589253     PISSN: 17400228     EISSN: 17400236     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S1740022808002775     Document Type: Review

References (151)

1. Frederic C. Lane, 'The Mediterranean spice trade: further evidence of its revival in the sixteenth century', American Historical Review, 45, 3, 1940, pp. 581-90;
2. C. H. H. Wake, 'The changing pattern of Europe's pepper and spice imports, ca. 1400-1700', Journal of European Economic History, 8, 1979, pp. 361-403;
3. Niels Steensgaard, The Asian trade revolution of the seventeenth century: the East India Companies and the decline of the caravan trade, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1974;
4. C. R. Boxer, 'A note on Portuguese reactions to the revival of the Red Sea spice trade and the rise of Atjeh, 1540-1600', Journal of Southeast Asian History, 10, 3, 1969, pp. 415-28.
5. S. Subrahmanyam, 'The birth-pangs of Portuguese Asia: revisiting the fateful "Long Decade" 1498-1509', Journal of Global History, 2, 3, 2007, pp. 261-80.
6. Previous work on the topic includes 'A question of quality: the commercial contest between Portuguese Atlantic spices and their Venetian Levantine equivalents over the sixteenth century', Itinerario, 26, 2, 2002, pp. 45-63.
7. Ken Albala asserts that capsicums remained 'botanical curiosities' rather than food: Eating right in the Renaissance, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2002, p. 236. If this is true for most of northern Europe, then it is simply untrue for southern Europe. Albala uses dieticians and cookery books rather than botanical sources; trading sources are of little use here, as the product was rapidly import substituted.
8. F. Braudel, 'The Mediterranean economy in the 16th century', in P. Earle, Essays in European economic history, 1500-1800, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1974, p. 17.
9. Archivio di Stato di Venezia, Capitolare Nr. II, fo. 12b; for a foreigner's impressions, see M. Letts, ed., Pero Tafur: travels and adventures, 1435-1439, London: Routledge, 1926, ch. 20, pp. 163ff.
10. Stefan Halikowski Smith, Portugal and the European spice trade, 1480-1580, Florence: European University Institute, 2001, Appendix 1;
11. Jorge Pedreira, 'Costs and financial trends in the Portuguese Empire, 1415-1822', in D. Ramada Curto and F. Bethencourt, eds., Portuguese oceanic expansion, 1400-1800, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007, p. 56, table 2.1.
12. For example, Dietmar Rothermund, Asian trade and European expansion in the age of mercantilism, New Delhi: Manohar, 1981.
13. Jan Kieniewicz, 'Pepper gardens and market in precolonial Malabar', Moyen Orient et Océan Indien, XVIe-XIXe siècles, 3, 1986, pp. 1-36;
14. Boxer, 'Note on Portuguese reactions', pp. 418-19.
15. V. M. Godinho, Os descobrimentos e a economia mundial, 4 vols, Lisbon: Presença, 1982-7.
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19. With regard to 1554, see H. Pohl, 'Os Portugueses em Antuérpia (1550-1650)', in E. Stols and J. Everaert, eds., Flandres e Portugal: na confluência De duas culturas, Antwerp: INAPA, 1991, p. 53; the letter patent of 1560 is in CFPA, caixa 3, no. 21 - m. A, no. 3;
20. with respect to 1577, see W. A. Engelbrecht, Esboço das relações históricas entre Portugal e a Holanda, in Congresso do Mundo Português, Lisbon: Bertrand Irmãos, 1949, p. 426;
21. idem, 'Van't consulaet Van De natie Van Portugal', in Rechten ende Costumen Van Antwerpen, Antwerp: Christopher Plantin, 1582, p. 24.
22. For general estimates regarding the size of the Portuguese community in Antwerp, see Hans Pohl, 'Os Portugueses em Antuérpia', in Everaert and Stols, Flandres e Portugal, pp. 61-2
23. and Joaquim Veríssimo Serrão, 'A feitoria De Antuérpia' in História De Portugal (1495-1580), Lisbon: Editorial Verbo, 1980, pp. 3.30-1 and n. 262.
24. The registre communal is mentioned in Albert De Burbure De Wesembeek, La casa De Portugal d'Anvers, Brussels: Revue 'Portugal Belgique', 1953, p. 14;
25. while the 1572 census is dealt with in J. A. Goris, Etude sur les colonies marchandes méridionales (Portugais, Espagnols, Italiens), à Anvers De 1488 à 1567, Louvain: Uystpruyst, 1925, pp. 614-16.
26. Duarte Gomes Solis, Alegación en favor De la Compañia De la India Oriental, commercios ultramarines, que en De nuevo se instituyo en el Reyno De Portugal, Madrid or Lisbon, 1628, vol. 2, p. 230.
27. The decree is reported by Vincenzo Quirini in E. Alberi, ed., Le relazioni degli ambasciatori veneti, Florence: by the author, 1863, p. 13;
28. and by Leonardo Da Ca'Masser, 'Ordenazion del re di Portogallo', in his Relazione di Leonardo Da C.M. alla Serenissima Repubblica di Venezia sopra il commercio dei Portoghesi nell, India dopo la scoperta del Capo di Buona Speranza, n.p., 1845, pp. 29-30.
29. For source elucidation, see Halikowski Smith, Portugal, p. 88.
30. L. Guicciardini, Description De tovts les Pais-Bas autrement appelés la Germanie Inferieure, ov Basse Allemagne, Antwerpen: Plantin, 1582, pp. 495.
31. Halikowski Smith, Portugal, chs. 6 and 7.
32. W. S. Unger, Bronnen tot De geschiedenis Van Middelburg in Den landsheerlijken tijd, vol. 3, Rijks Geschiedkundige Publicatien, 75, The Hague, 1931, no. 477; from Stadsarchief Antwerpen, SchepeNbrieven, no. 139, fo. 120r (no. 3642).
33. Gertrud Susanna Gramulla, Handelsbeziehungen Kölner Kaufleute zwischen 1500 und 1650, Cologne: Bolau, 1972, p. 336, taken from K. I, II, nr. 701 and Brb. 95, 87.
34. Immanuel Wallerstein, Modern world-system, vol. 1 ('Capitalist agriculture and the origins of the European world-economy in the sixteenth century'), New York: Academic Press, 1974.
35. Douglas A. Irwin, 'Mercantilism as strategic trade policy: the Anglo-Dutch rivalry for the East India trade', Journal of Political Economy, 99, 6, 1991, pp. 1296-1314.
36. Arquivo Histórico Ultramarino, Lisbon, Índia, papéis avulsos, caixa 1, doc. 61.
37. Letter from Fernando De Morales to Simon Ruiz at Medina del Campo, dated 14 January 1575, in which São Tomé ginger is described as 'una droga nueva', in J. Gentil Da Silva, ed., Marchandises et finances: lettres De Lisbonne, 1563-1578, vol. 3, Paris: SEVPEN, 1961, p. 4.
38. Brandônio, Diálogos Da Grandeza do Brasil, Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1987, Diálogo 4, p. 221;
39. for the heedlessness paid the order, see Stuart Schwartz, Sovereignty and society in colonial Brazil, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1973, pp. 158-9.
40. Francisco Carneiro, Relação De todas as rendas Da coroa deste Reyno De Portugal (1593), ed. Francisco Mendes Da Luz, Boletim Da Biblioteca Da Universida De Coimbra, 53, 1949, p. 64.
41. Oliveira Marques, 'Um preçário De mercadorias e De câmbios De Hamburgo, do século XVT, in Portugal Quinhentista: Ensaios, Lisbon: Quetzal, 1987, p. 216.
42. Brandônio, Diálogos, Diálogo 4, p. 209.
43. John Gerard, The herball or generali historie of plants, first published 1597, Amsterdam: Theatrum Orbis Terrarum, 1974, ch. 147, p. 1357.
44. Letter to D. Martinho (not dated), in A. De Albuquerque, Cartas para el-Rei D. Manuel, Lisbon: Cosmos, 1942, vol. 1, p. 468.
45. Gerard, Historie of plants, p. 1356.
46. G. B. Depping, Histoire du commerce entre le Levant et l'Europe depuis les croisades jusqu'à la fondation des colonies d'Amérique, Paris, 1830, vol. 2, pp. 27.3-4.
47. Leo Africanus, A geographical historie of Africa, written in Arabicke and Italian, London: G. Bishop, 1600, p. 42;
48. Duarte Pacheco Pereira, Esmeraldo De situ orbis, trans, and ed. G. H. T. Kimble, London: Hakluyt Society, 1937, p. 119.
49. Africanus, Geographical historie, p. 42;
50. J. M. Da Silva Marques, ed., Descobrimentos Portugueses: documentos para a sua história, Lisboa: Instituto Nacional De Investigação Científica, 1988, vol. 3, p. 207, doc. 200 and pp. 428-9, doc. 289.
51. R. Hakluyt, 'First voiage of the Primerose and Lion to Guinea and Benin, A.D. 1553', in The principal navigations, voyages, traffiques and discoveries of the English nation, first published 1598-1600, London: J. M. Dent, 1926, vol. 2, pt. 2ff.;
52. J. Welsh, 'A voyage to Benin beyond the country of Guinea', extract in T. Hodgkin, Nigerian perspectives: an historical anthology, 2nd edition London: Oxford University Press, 1975, p. 143.
53. Ludwig Choulant, Macer Floridas De viribus herbarum una cum Walafridi Strabonis, Othonis Cremonensis et Ioannis Folcz carminibus similis argumenti, quae secundum codices manuscriptos et veteres editiones, Leipzig: Voss, 1832, p. 188.
54. Ca'Masser, Relazione, p. 19
55. Garcia d'Orta, Colloquios dos simples e drogas e cousas medicinaes Da India, Lisbon: Imprensa Nacional, 1872, Colloquio 19, p. 80.
56. 'quas Indi in tanto habent pretio, vt non nisi coctas eas in terras alienas exportent': Theodor De Bry, 'Indiae Orientalis', Great Voyages series, Frankfurt, 1601, part 15.
57. C. L. Reichard, Beiträge zur Geschichte Der Apotheken, Ulm: Verlag Der Stettischen Buchhandlung, 1825, p. 124.
58. Duarte Barbosa, 'List of drug prices at Calicut around 1516', in The book of Duarte Barbosa, London: Hakluyt Society, 1921, pp. 384-5.
59. Castore Durante, Herbario nuovo, Venice: Giacomo Hertz, 1684, p. 328.
60. Orta, Colloquios dos simples, p. 173.
61. Pliny, Historia naturalis, Bk. 12, ch. 7.
62. Carta De Francisco Pessoa e Ruy Fernandes a D. Manuel, Antwerp, 24 March 1517, in Maria Themudo Barata, Rui Fernandes De Almada, diplomata português do século XVI, Lisbon: Centro De Estudos Históricos, 1971, doc. 11.
63. J. Lindley and T. Moore, The treasury of botany, London: Longmans, 1866, 'Chavica'.
64. Gerard, Historie of plants, vol. 2, p. 1355.
65. Lindley and Moore, Treasury of botany, p. 564.
66. V. M. Patiño, Plantas cultivadas en América equinoccial, Cali, Columbia, 1963, pp. 70, 213.
67. F. Hümmerich, Die erste deutsche Handelsfahrt nach Indien, Berlin: Oldenbourg, 1922, p. 33;
68. see also, Lúcio De Azevedo, Epocas De Portugal económico, Lisboa: Liv. Clássica, 1929, p. 78.
69. Published in L. Augusto Rebello Da Silva, ed., Corpo diplomatico portugues, vol. 1, Lisbon: Academia Real das Sciencias, 1862, p. 97.
70. The Calliro Redolilo contract of 1512 is reproduced, edited by Anselmo Braamcamp Freire in Arquivo Histórico Portuguez, 2, 6, 1904, p. 441, doc. 297.
71. Caspar Bauhinus spoke of 'eines scharfen Geschmacks/aber lieblicher Geruchs', in Neu vollkommen Krauterbuch: mit schoenen und kuenstlichen Figuren ., Basel, 1672, Bk. 3, p. 1.319.
72. I. Elbl, The Portuguese trade with West Africa, 1440-1521, PhD thesis, University of Toronto, 1986, p. 507;
73. Godinho, Os descobrimentos, vol. 2, p. 154.
74. See, for example, Bauhinus, Neu vollkommen Krauterbuch, Bk. 3, p. 1319.
75. This first reference to malagueta as pepper is recorded in W. Bosman's Description of the coast of Guinea, London: Knapton, 1705, vol. 16, p. 285.
76. Cited by F. A. Flückiger and Daniel Hanbury, Pharmacographia, London: Macmillan, 1879, p. 591.
77. J. Mendes De Almeida, ed., 'Portugal nás Cronicas De Nuremberg De Hartmann Schedel', Arquivo De Bibliografia Portuguesa, 19-20, 1959, p. 214;
78. 'Scharf ist wie pfeffer', commented Josua Maaler in Die teütsch spraach. alle wœrter, namen vnd arten zu reden in hochteütscher spraach., Zürich, 1561, p. 315c.
79. Apud A.B.F., no. 9, vol. 1, carta 110, pp. 361-2. Ca'Masser reports that malagueta sold for 10 ducats a cantar around 1506: Relazione, p. 30, which confirms the accuracy of the quittance data.
80. Francisco Guerra, 'Drugs from the Indies and the political economy of the sixteenth century', in M. Florkin, ed., Materia medica in the sixteenth century, Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1966, p. 38.
81. L. De Sousa, ed., Anais De D. João III, Lisbon: Sá Da Costa, 1958, vol. 2, p. 258.
82. Jean Denucé, L'Afrique au XVIe siècle et le commerce anversois, Antwerp: De Sikkel, 1937, pp. 78-9.
83. Joannes De Laet, Iaerlyck Verhael Van De verrichtingen Van De geoctroyeerde West-Indische Compagnie, Leiden, 1644, Appendix.
84. National Archives, London (henceforth NA), T/70/50, fo. 13 (letter to Gibson, 9 February 1692);
85. Robin Law, The English in West Africa, 1681-1683, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997, nos. 575, 578.
86. L. Plouvier, 'Et les épices pimentèrent la cuisine européenne', L'Historien, 76, 1985, p. 84.
87. Elbl, Portuguese trade, pp. 527-8.
88. Diego Alvarez Chanca, 'La carta del Doctor Chanca, que escribio a la Ciudad De Sevilla', in Cecil Jane, ed., The Four Voyages of Columbus, New York: Dover Publications, 1988;
89. Peter Martyr, The decades of the Newe Worlde or West India, trans, by Richard Eden, London, 1555
90. from De rebus oceanis et orbe novo decades tres, Basel, 1533, repr. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms, 1966.
91. More generally, see Jean Andrews, Peppers: the domesticated Capsicums, Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, 1984.
92. Table 1, 'World production of main spices in major producing countries', in Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (henceforth FAO), Spices: trends in world markets, Commodity Bulletin Series, Rome, 1962.
93. H. Staden, Viagem ao Brasil, originally published 1557, Rio De Janeiro: Academia Brasileira, 1930, p. 88;
94. L. Da Câmara Cascudo, História Da alimentação no Brasil, São Paulo: Companhia Editora Nacional, 1967, p. 127.
95. Jiang Mudong and Wang Siming, 'Lajiao ai Zhongguo De Chuanbo Jiqi Yingxiang' Zhongguo Nongshi, 24, 2, 2005, pp. 17-27.
96. Carol Clusius, Curae posteriores, Antwerp, 1611, p. 95.
97. Leonhart Fuchs, De historia stirpium commentarii insignes: maximis impensis et vigiliis elaborati, adjectis earundem vivis plusquam quingentis imaginibus, nunquam antea ad naturae imitationem artificiosus effectis & expressis, Basel: In Officina Insingriniana, 1542.
98. In Samuel Eliot Morison, Admiral of the ocean sea: a life of Christopher Columbus, Boston, MA: Little, Brown & Co., 1942, p. 435;
99. Michele De Cuneo, 'Letters on the second voyage, October 28, 1496', in Samuel Eliot Morison, Journals and other documents on the life and voyages of Christopher Columbus, New York: Heritage Press, 1963, p. 155.
100. J. Nieuhof, Memorável viagem maritime e terrestre ao Brasil, ed. Jose Honorario Rodrigues, São Paulo: Livraria Martins, 1942;
101. Georg Marcgrave, História natural do Brasil, São Paulo: Imprensa oficial do estado, 1942.
102. Durante, Herbario nuovo, p. 344.
103. N. Monardes, Joyfull newes out of the newe found worlde, trans. John Frampton, London, 1577, fos. 20-1.
104. FAO, Trade, commerce: a statistical synopsis, Rome, 1994, pp. 179-82, tables 79 and 80.
105. Sándor Bálint, A szegedi paprika, Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó, 1962.
106. W. Loose, ed., Anton Tuchers Haushaltbuch, Tübingen: Litterarischer Verein in Stuttgart, 1877;
107. Paul Behaim's book of expenses at the Germanisches Nationalmuseum, Nürnberg has been analysed by J. Kamann, 'Aus Nürnberger Haushaltungs- und Rechnungsbüchern des 15. und 16. Jahrhunderts', Mitteilungen des Vereins für Geschichte Der Stadt Nürnberg, 6, 1866, pp. 57-122 and 7, 1888, pp. 39-168.
108. E. Ashtor, 'Essai sur l'alimentation des diverses classes sociales dans l'Orient médiéval', Vie Matérielle et Comportements Biologiques, Bulletin no. 16 (1968), pp. 1017-53;
109. Andrzej Wyczański, La consommation alimentaire en Pologne aux XVIe et XVIIe siecles, Paris: Publications De la Sorbonne, p. 72;
110. Maria Bogucka, 'Z Badań nad Konsumpcja̧ Żywnoś ciowa mieszczan warszawskich na przełomie XVI I XVII wieku', Kwartalnik Historii Kultury Materialnej, 25, 1977, pp. 31-43.
111. Philippa Glanville, Silver in Tudor and early Stuart England, London: Victoria and Albert Museum, 1990, p. 483.
112. Jadwiga Żylińska, Piastówny i żony Piastów, Warsaw: Państwowy Instytut Wydawniczy, 1967, p. 273.
113. Stefan Halikowski Smith, 'Demystifying a change in taste: spices, space and social hierarchy in Europe, 1380-1750', International History Review, 29, 2, 2007, pp. 241-4.
114. N. Boileau, 'Le Repas ridicule', satire 3, line 119 (written 1664, completed 1665).
115. Jean-Louis Flandrin, 'La distinction par le goût', in Philippe Ariès and George Duby, Histoire De la vie privée, Paris: Seuil, 1985-87, vol. 3.
116. 'Memorial De las mercaderías que entrali en el Reyno' (1554), in Hilario Alonso Casado, Castilla y Europa: comercio y mercaderes en los siglos XIV, XV y XVI, Burgos: Diputación Provincial De Burgos, 1995, p. 184.
117. James C. Boyajian, Portuguese trade in Asia under the Habsburgs, 1580-1640, Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993, p. 44.
118. P. Kriedte, 'Vom Großhändler zum Detaillisten: Der Handel mit "Kolonialwaren" im 17. und 18. Jahrhundert', Jahrbuch für Wirtschaftsgeschichte, 1, 1994, pp. 11-36.
119. D. Ormrod, 'Northern Europe and the expanding world-economy: the transformation of commercial organisation, 1500-1800', in S. Cavaciocchi (ed.), Prodotti e techniche d'Oltremare nelle Economie Europee. Secc. XIII-XVIII, Prato: Istituto Internationale di Storia Economica, 1998, p. 681.
120. E. Schokkaert and H. Van Der Wee, 'A quantitative study of food consumption in the Low Countries during the sixteenth century', Journal of European Economic History, 17, 1, 1988, pp. 131-58.
121. J.-L. Flandrin, 'La révolution culinaire du XVIIe siècle', introduction to F. De la Varenne, Le cuisinier français, Paris: Montalba, 1983;
122. cf. Joan Corominas, Diccionario crítico etimológico castellano e hispánico, Madrid: Credos, 1954-7, 'Gusto'.
123. Braudel, Capitalism and material life, 1400-1800, New York: Harper and Row, 1973, p. 122;
124. H. Leibenstein, 'Bandwagon, snob, and Veblen effects in the theory of consumers' demand', Quarterly Journal of Economics, 64, 1950, pp. 183-207.
125. Caption in an exhibition on paprika, Országos Mezocombining double acute accentgazdasági Múzeum, Budapest, 1998, citing A. Szent-Györgyi, A vitaminok és a paprika, Budapest: Egyetemi Ny, 1934.
126. Max Weber, Essays in sociology, London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1948, p. 155.
127. Pliny, Historia naturalis, Bk. 3, ch. 10.
128. More generally, see Albert Deman, 'Les épices et le merveilleux oriental', in Saveurs De paradis: les routes des épices, Brussels: CGER, 1992.
129. Stefan Halikowski Smith, 'The mystification of spices in the Western tradition', European Review of History, 8, 2, 2001, pp. 119-36.
130. Royal College of Physicians of London, London Pharmacopeia, 2nd edition, 1618, repr. Madison, WI: State Historical Society, 1944.
131. More generally, see William Eamonn, Science and the secrets of nature: books of secrets in medieval and early modem culture, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994, especially ch. 6.
132. J. Le Goff, The medieval imagination, trans. Arthur Goldhammer, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992, p. 39.
133. J. P. Berjeau, ed. and trans., Calcoen: a Dutch narrative of the second voyage of Vasco Da Gama to Calicut, printed at Antwerp circa 1504, London: B. M. Pickering, 1874.
134. Orta, Coloquios dos simples, p. 121.
135. Dioscorides, De materia medica, ii, 188.
136. The garden at Leyden is described in Peter O. Overadt, Hortorvm viridariorvmque nouiter in Europa praecipue adornatorum elegantes et multiplices formae ad vivum delineatae et aeri incisae, Cologne, 1655.
137. Adam Zaluziansky, Methodi herbariae, libri tres, Prague, 1592.
138. Historians of science concur that the most impressive example was Cesalpino's De plantis libri XVI, Florence, 1583.
139. Mats Rydén, interestingly, has argued that English natural history was distinctly non-classificatory, in contrast to continental endeavours: 'Språk och Natur i Renässansens England', in Kungl. Humanistiska Vetenskaps-Samfundet i Uppsala, Årsbok, 1991-2, Uppsala: Swedish Science Press, 1992, pp. 123-42.
140. Allen Debus, The chemical philosophy: Paracelsian science and medicine in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, New York: Science History Publications, 1977.
141. J. Worth Estes, Dictionary of protopharmacology: therapeutic practices, 1700-1850, Canton, MA: Science History Publications, 1990;
142. G. E. Trease, Pharmacy in history, London: Baillière, Tindall & Cox, 1964, especially pp. 169ff.
143. W. Abel, 'Wandlungen des Fleischverbrauchs und Der Fleischversorgung in Deutschland', Berichte über Landwirtschaft, 22, 1938, pp. 411-52.
144. Hugues Neveux concluded, reviewing fifteen years of international research on the subject: 'Surtout, la consommation De viande connaît, à toutes les époques, une plus grande diversité qu'il ne le supposait, et les disparités apparaissent si fortes que l'on peut se demander si un indice De position a, dans ces conditions, quelque chance d'être encore significatif et s'il ne devient pas purement et simplement une inutile abstraction', 'L'alimentation du XIVe au XVIIIe siècle', Revue d'Histoire Economique et Sociale, 51, 1973, 361.
145. Paul Sharman and Jennifer Billing, 'Antimicrobial functions of spices: why some like it hot', Quarterly Review of Biology, 73, 1, 1998, pp. 3-49.
146. J. Stannard and P. Dilg, 'Observations on De theriacis et mithridateis commentariolus', in F. Baron, ed., Joachim Camerarius (1500-1574): Beiträge zur Geschichte des Humanismus im Zeitalter Der Reformation und seine Zeit, Munich: W. Fink, 1978, pp. 152-86;
147. Richard Palmer, 'Pharmacy in the Republic of Venice in the sixteenth century', in A. Wear, R.K. French, and LM. Lonie, eds., The medical renaissance of the sixteenth century, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985, pp. 100-17.
148. Michael McVaugh, 'The Experimenta of Arnald of Villanova', Journal of Medieval and Renaissance Studies, 1, 1971, pp. 107-18.
149. W. H. McNeill, Plagues and people, Oxford: Blackwell, 1976, p. 236.
150. For example, F. Unterkircher, ed., Tacuinum sanitatis in medicina Codex Vindobonensis Series Nova 2644 Der Österreichiscen National Bibliothek, Graz: Akademische Druck- und Verlagsanstalt, 2004;
151. also Luisa Cogliati Arano, The medieval health handbook: Tacuinum sanitatis, London: Barrie & Jenkins, 1976.