Demystifying a change in taste: Spices, space, and social hierarchy in Europe, 1380-1750

International History Review

Volumn 29, Issue 2, 2007, Pages 237-257

  Smith, Stefan Halikowski ^a  

^a SWANSEA UNIVERSITY   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 60949654898     PISSN: 07075332     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/07075332.2007.9641125     Document Type: Review

References (188)

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2. Otherwise, K. Glamann, 'European Trade, 1500-1750', in The Fontana Economic History of Europe, ed. C. Cipolla (London, 1976), i. 466
3. For the principles of dever e haver, see B. Bennassar, 'A funçāo do comércio e a teoria dos círculos de comunicaçāo', in História Económica e Social do Mundo, ed. P. Léon (Lisbon, 1984), i. t. II
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6. See R. Wernick, 'Men Launched 1000 Ships in Search of the Dark Condiment', The Smithsonian, xiv, 11 (Feb. 1984), 128-48
7. Fatti e idee di storia economica nei secoli 12.-20. : studi dedicati a Franco Borlandi (Bologna, 1976)
8. Spices in the Indian Ocean World, ed. M. Pearson (Aldershot 1996), p. xvii
9. Food and Agricultural Association (UN), Spices: Trends in World Markets, Commodity Bulletin Series (Rome, 1962)
10. A. Goosse, 'Des mots épicés', in Saveurs de Paradis. Les Routes des Épices, Caisse Générale d'Epargne et de Retraite (Brussels, 1992), pp. 36-7
11. T. Storey, 'Questo negozio è aromatichissimo': A Sociocultural Study of Prostitution in Early Modern Rome' (Ph.D. dissertation, European University Institute, April 1999), note following title page
12. Armani free sample, license no. EMB 02340A
13. G. Bachelard, La psychoanalyse du feu (Paris, 1949)
14. European Food History: A Research Review, ed. H.J. Teuteberg (Leicester, 1992), p. 5 and Table 1.1,'Social and Psychic Functions of Foodstuffs and Luxuries'
15. D. Sumner, 'On Testing the Sense of Smell', The Lancet, ii (1962), 895-7
16. H. L. Meiselman and R. S. Rivlin, Clinical Measurement of Taste and Smell (New York, 1986), ch. 11
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18. L. Plouvier, 'Et les épices pimentèrent la cuisine européenne', L'Historien, lxxvi (1985), 85
19. This figure is devised from the five editions of the work printed at Lyon between 1567 and 1604
20. The Vivendier: A Critical Edition with English Translation, ed. T. Scully (Totnes, 1997), recipe no. 6, p.35
21. M. W. Labarge, 'The Spice Account', History Today, xvi (1965), 34
22. See P. Aebischer, 'Un manuscrit valaisan du "Viandier" attributé à Taillevent', Vallesia, viii (1953), 73-100
23. W. Schivelbusch, Das Paradies, der Geschmack und die Vernunft. Eine Geschichte der Genußmittel (Frankfurt, 1990), p. 15
24. and T. Zeldin, 'Why There Has Been More Progress in Cooking than in Sex', in An Intimate History of Humanity (London, 1997), pp. 95-6
25. Cf. Cosman, Fabulous Feasts, p. 47
26. A. H. de Oliveira Marques talks, about spices, of 'a abusar do seu emprego', A Sociedade Medieval Portuguesa. Aspectos de Vida Quolidiana (Lisbon, 1971), p. 9
27. For a caricature of the qualities associated with spices, see L. de Camões, Os Lusíadas, Canto segundo, 4 th octave
28. Theophrastus, On Odours, trans. Sir A. Hart (London, 1917), p. 10
29. See, e.g., the recipe for 'a great plenty of sugar' to be added to a boiled and pounded chicken in a mould: Le Menagier de Paris, c. 1393, trans. as The Goodman of Paris: A Treatise on Moral and Domestic Economy, ed. E. Power (London, 1928), p. 295, 'coulis d'un poulet'
30. For 'sweet spices', see B. Platina, De Honesta Voluptae, 1475, trans. as On Right Pleasure and Good Health (Tempe, 1998), p. 225
31. Chrétien of Troyes, Cligès, in Les Romans de Chrétien de Troyes, édites d'après la copie de Guiot (Bibl. Nat. II. 794), ed. A. Micha (Paris, 1957), ii. lines 3212-16 ff
32. H. T. Turner, Manners and Household Expenses of the Thirteenth and Fifteenth Centuries (London, 1841)
33. M. S. Giuseppi, 'The Wardrobe and Household Accounts of Bogo de Clare, 1284-6', Archaeologia, lxx (1920)
34. F. di Balducci Pegolotti, La Pratica della Mercatura, ed. A. Evans (Cambridge, MA, 1936)
35. The Correspondence of Erasmus: II: Letters 1535-1657, AD 1525, ed. A. Dalzell and C. G. Nauert, Jr. (Toronto, 1994), p. 386
36. Excellent & moult utile Opuscule à touts nécessaire ... livre de Nostradamus, 2e partie, 1555
37. Lyon, Bibliothèque Municipale; M. de L'Hospital, 'Harangues', in Oeuvres complètes (Paris, 1824-5), ii. 70
38. [Nuremberg,] G[ermanisches] N[ational]m[useum] N[uremberg], Behaim Archiv, Schrank 102, Fach 1/22
39. E. and T. Cohen, Daily Life in Renaissance Italy (Westport, CN, 2001), p. 228
40. Luther's Works: II, ed. J. Pelikan (St Louis, 1986), p. 65
41. F. Moryson, An Itinerary Containing His Ten Yeeres Travell through the Twelve Dominions of Germany, Bohmerland, Switzerland, Netherland, Denmarke, Poland, Italy... (London, 1617)
42. See, e.g., F. Rabelais, 'D'un cousté sont apportez vins et espices ...', Gargantua et Pantagruel, ed. P. Jourda (Paris, 1962), bk. IV, ch. 14, ii. 81
43. Treatise of Walter of Bibbersworth, ed. A. Owen (Dissertation, Paris, 1929); other indications to be found in the Romance de la Rose, and in 'Le dit du prunier'
44. I. de Garine, 'Modes alimentaires', in L'Histoire des Moeurs, ed. J. Poirier (Paris, 1991), i. 1586 ff
45. See Konrad Rott, European market estimations for Atlantic pepper in 1579-80, Stadtarchiv Dresden, loc. 7411
46. European market estimation for Atlantic pepper by an 'expert', in the Spanish contract of 1611, Archivo General de Simancas, Estado 2852; 'Trade, Commerce: Statistical Synopses', FAO (UN) (1994), table 79
47. Cf. P. Kaeppelin's assertion that France constituted 'the largest market for textiles and spices brought back from the East Indies', which can only hold for the latter half of the seventeenth century: Les Origines de l'Inde française, La Compagnie des Indes orientales et François Martin, étude sur l'histoire du commerce et des établissements français dans l'Inde sous Louis XIV (1664-1719) (Paris, 1908), p. 3
48. See, e.g., C. Durante, Herbario Nuovo (Rome, 1585), p. 344
49. I. Elbl, 'The Portuguese Trade with West Africa, 1440-1521' (Ph.D. dissertation, Toronto, 1986), p. 512
50. Maino De' Maineri, 'De Saporibus', in 'A Medieval Sauce-Book', ed. L. Thorndike, Speculum, ix (1934), 188
51. Maistre Chiquart, Du fait de cuisine, ed. T. Scully, offprint from Vallesia, xl (1985), fos. 14, 20, 21, 37
52. Traccion espan̄ola de un manuscrito anonimo del siglo XIII sobre la cocina hispano-maghribi, ed. A. Huici Miranda (Madrid, 1966)
53. Un libro de cocina del siglo XIV, ed. J. Osset Meell, Boletin de la Sociedade Castallonense de Cultura, xvi (1935), 156-77
54. 'Um tratado de cozinha do século XVI (MS. 1-E-33 of BN of Naples)', ed. M. J. da Gama Lobo Salema (Master's dissertation, Lisbon, 1956)
55. G. de Orta, Colloquies on the Simples and Drugs of India, ed. Sir C. Markham (London, 1913), i. 118
56. J. Israel, Dutch Primacy in World Trade, 1585-1740 (Oxford, 1990), p. 251
57. H. da Gama Barros, História da Administração Publico em Portugal nos séculos XII-XV (2nd. ed., Lisbon, 1945-54), x. 156
58. Orta, Colloquies, pp. 275 ff
59. G. della Casa (Galateo), A Treatise of Manners (Amsterdam, 1969), originally published 1558, p. 100
60. Fratris Felicis Fabri Evagatorium in Terrae Sanctae, Arabiae et Egypti peregrinationem, ed. C. D. Hassler (Stuttgart, 1843-9), 3 vols. (1480-3)
61. P. Tafur, Anianças e Viajes, ed. J. de la Espada (Madrid, 1874)
62. G. Botero, The Travellers Breviat (London, 1601), pp. 82-3
63. A. Karbowiak, Obiady profesorów Uniwersytetu Jagiellonskiego w XVI I XVII wieku (Cracow, 1900), p. 11
64. D. de Goís, Crónica de D. Manuel (Lisbon, 1566-7), pt. I, cap. 5, 217
65. G. V. Forsten, Akty i pis'mak istorii baltijskogo vaprosa (St Petersburg, 1893), ii. 110
66. Moryson, Itinerary, pp. 81 ff.
67. R. Dallington, Survey of Tuscany (1596), p. 34
68. see also, C. Howard, English Travellers of the Renaissance (New York, 1968)
69. Montaigne, in J. G. Links, Travellers in Europe: Private Records of Journeys by the Great and Forgotten (1980), p. 144. Both Ancient Cookery (1381) and Form of Cury
70. (c. 1390) were published by G. Brander in The Forme of Cury: A Roll of Ancient English Cookery (London, 1780)
71. De Garine, L'Histoire des Moeurs, ed. Poirier
72. W. Thomas, The Pilgrim (1546)
73. A. Ma̧czak, Viaggi e viaggatori nell'Europa moderna, ed. Laterza and Figlia SpA, Rome, 1994), p. 2
74. M. Wade Labarge, A Baronial Household of the Thirteenth Century (London, 1965)
75. L. Febvre, Le problème de l'incroyance au XVIe siècle (Paris, 1942), pp. 461-72
76. P. Fauré, Parfums et Aromates de l'Antiquité (Paris, 1987), p. 13
77. C. Classen et al., Aroma: The Cultural History of Smell (London, 1994), pt. 2, ch. 3
78. See, e.g., the definition of 'Od[o]res' and 'Od[o]r[i]f[e]rus' in T. Thomas, Dictionarium Linguae Latinae et Anglicanae (Cambridge, 1587)
79. Cited by J. Verberckmoes, Schertsen, schimpen en schateren: geschiedenis van het lichen in de zuide-lijke Nederlanden, zestiende en zeventiende eeuw (Nijmegen, 1998), p. 85
80. Cited by F. Kennett, A History of Perfume (London, 1975), p. 122
81. See, e.g., The Calendar of State Papers and Manuscripts Relating to English Affairs Existing in the Archives and Collections of Venice &c., ed. R. Brown (London, 1854), i. 67
82. Delia Casa, Il Galateo, ch. 28
83. Arnaldo di Villanova, 'Del modo di fare un profumo', in Il De Conservanda juventute (Leipzig, 1511), trans. as Il Libro sul modo di conservare la gioventù e ritardare la vecchiaia (Genoa, 1963), p. 52
84. S. Halikowski Smith, 'The Mystification of Spices in the Western Tradition', European Review of History, viii (2001), 119-36
85. D. Erasmus, 'Institutio Principis Christiani' (1516), trans. and annotated N. M. Cheshire and M.J. Heath, in Collected Works of Erasmus (Toronto, 1974), xxvii. 262
86. F. Braudel, Capitalism and Material Life (London, 1974), p. 123
87. A. Apparadurai, The Social Life of Things: Commodities in Cultural Perspective (Cambridge, 1986), intro
88. For Portugal, see the king's payment for a series of Flemish tapestries, Lisbon, Arquivos Nacionais do Torre do Tombo, Corpo Crónologico, pte. 1, m. 23, doc. 43; for France, see J. Racine, Les Plaideurs (1668), act ii, scene 7
89. Nobiliaire du diocèse et de la généralité de Limoges, ed. J. Nadaud, A. Lecler, J.-B. L. Roy de Pierrefitte (Paris, 1974), iii. 78
90. Scribal entry of Heltai Gáspár, 1595, Koloszvár/ Cluj, Municipal Archives, KvSzám 6/XV-XVI. I thank Emese Bálint of Central European University for her help
91. A. de Magalhães Basto, 'No tempo dos feitores da Flandres', sep. no. 2 da Diónysos, Porto
92. Benvenuto Cellini, Salt-cellar, 1543, K[unst]h[istorisches] M[useum, Vienna], www.khm.at. J. Kybalová places Cellini's work in a wider genre tradition, 'Nádoby na Korení, Umeí a Remesla, issue 1 (1980), 49-55
93. For a description and history, see A. Weixlgärtner, 'Die weltliche Schatzkammer in Wien', Jahrbuch der Kunsthistorischen Sammlungen in Wien, ii (1928), 267-315
94. See also, Indian Bezoar stones, decorated in the Indo-Portuguese style of the 17th century. Probably from the stomach of the Himalayan goat or chamois, Viennese Schatzkammer (Inventory of 1750) KHM, inv. P. 996, 1001
95. For examples, see J. Brierley, Spices: The Story of Indonesia's Spice Trade (Kuala Lumpur, 1994), pp. 23, 24
96. and P. Glanville, Silver in Tudor and Early Stuart England (London, 1990)
97. M. Lemnis and H. Vitry, Old Polish Traditions in the Kitchen and at the Table (Warsaw, 1979), p. 45
98. J. Żylińska, Piastówny i żony Piastów (Warsaw, 1967), p.273
99. P. Nightingale, A Medieval Mercantile Community: The Grocer's Company and the Politics and Trade of London, 1000-1485 (New Haven, CN, 1995), p. 74
100. See, e.g., those of Kloster Vinnenberg in G. Wiebe, Zur Geschichte der Preisrevolution des 16. und 17. Jahrhunderts (Leipzig, 1895), p. 343
101. and the Hospital of Lier's accounts between 1526 and 1602 in H. van der Wee, The Growth of the Antwerp Market (The Hague, 1963), i. 533 ff.
102. most famously published in Annales: Économies. Sociétés. Civilisations, xxiii (Sept.-Oct. 1968), 1017-1301
103. E. Ashtor, 'Essai sur l'alimentation des diverses classes sociales dans l'Orient médiéval', Vie Matérielle et Comportements Biologiques, bulletin no. 16
104. A. Wyczański, 'Les Aspects Sociaux de la Recherche sur la consommation alimentaire à l'époque préstatistique', First International Conference of Economic History. Contributions. . . Communications (Paris, 1960), pp. 474 ff
105. Vinodol and Ozalj, Hrvatski državni, Arhiv, Zagreb, Arhiv obitelji Sermage, Kutija 44 - 1.1 and 44 -1.9, 1.19. I thank Natasa Stefanec for this information
106. M. Weber, Wirtschaftsgeschichte (Munich, 1923), p. 156
107. G. Tarde, The Laws of Imitation (New York, 1903)
108. Tarde's theory is applied by R. Austen and W. Smith, who consider the desire for respectability as the primum mobile of expanding consumption of sugar among the poor: 'Private Tooth Decay as Public Economic Virtue: The Slave-Sugar Triangle, Consumerism, and European Industrialisation', Social Science History, xiv (1990), 95-115
109. See L. Plouvier, 'Et les Épices pimentèrent la Cuisine Européenne', L'Histoire, no. 76 (March 1985), 84-5
110. Nightingale, Medieval Mercantile Community, p. 74
111. Anton Tuckers Haushaltbuch, ed. W. Loose (Tübingen, 1877)
112. Paul Behaim's book of expenses, GNMN, Behaim Archiv, Schrank 102, Fach 1/22, analysed by J. Kamann, 'Aus Nürnberger Haushaltungs- und Rechnungsbüchern des 15. und 16
113. Jahrhunderts', Mitteilungen des Vereins für Geschichte der Stadt Nürnberg, vi (1866), 57-122 and vii (1888),39-168
114. The accounts of the Hospital of Lier between 1526 and 1602 also reveal that 3-6% of expenses went on sugar and spices: see Van der Wee, Antwerp Market, pp. 533 ff.
115. while the rich Antwerp merchant Gérard Gramaye set aside 6% of his expenses on food for condiments: R. Van Uytven, 'Herbes et Épices dans les Villes des Pays-Bas du Sud', in Saveurs de Paradis: Les routes des épices (Brussels, 1992), p. 86
116. J. H. Munro, 'The Coinages of Renaissance Europe, c.1500', in Handbook of European History in the Later Middle Ages, Renaissance, and Reformation, 1400-1600, ed. T. Brady Jr., H. Oberman, and J. Tracy, I: 'Structures and Assertions' (Leiden, 1994), pp. 671-8
117. Munro continues this line of analysis with respect to fifteenth-century-London building craftsmen and their wages in his lecture 'The Consumption of Spices and Their Costs in Late Medieval and Early Modern Europe: Luxuries or Necessities?', http://www.economics.utoronto.ca/munro5/SPICES1.pdf (13 Feb. 2006), p. 4
118. P. Masson, Les Compagnies du Corail (Paris, 1908), p. 196
119. L. Febvre, Life in Renaissance France, trans. of Pour une histoire à part entière (Cambridge, MA, 1977), p. 128 n. 18
120. P. Kriedte, 'Vom Großhàndler zum Detaillisten. Der Handel mit Kolonialwaren im 17. und 18. Jahrhundert', Jahrbuch für Wirtschaftsgeschichte, i (1994), 11-36
121. D. Ormrod, 'Northern Europe and the Expanding World Economy: The Transformation of Commercial Organisation, 1500-1800', in Prodotti e tecniche d'oltremare nette economie europee secc. XIII-XVIII: atti delia ventinovesima settimana di studi, [Prato] 14-19 aprile 1997, ed. S. Cavachiocchi (Florence, 1998), pp. 671-701
122. A. Reid, 'The System of Trade and Shipping in Maritime South and South-East Asia, and the Effects of the Development of the Cape Route to Europe', figs. 1 and 2.5. in The European Discovery of the World and Its Economic Effects on Pre-Industrial Societies, 1500-1800, Papers of the 10th International Economic History Congress, ed. H. Pohl (Stuttgart, 1990), pp. 76-7
123. H. Furber, Rival Empires of Trade in the Orient, 1600-1800 (Minneapolis, 1976), p. 236
124. F. A. Flückiger and D. Hanbury, Pharmacographia: A History of the Principal Drugs of Vegetable Origin Met within Great Britain and British India (London, 1874), p. 523
125. For the arrival of tea, tobacco, sugar, and coffee, see C. Stammas, 'Changes in English and Anglo-American Consumption 1550-1800', in Consumption and the World of Goods, ed. J. Brewer and R. Porter (London, 1993), pp. 177-206
126. R. Perren, 'The Marketing of Agricultural Products', in The Agrarian History of England and Wales, ed. J. Thirsk: VII, Part IV: Trade, Commerce, and Industry, ed. J. Chartres (Cambridge, 2000), pp. 959-99
127. J.-L. Flandrin, 'La révolution culinaire du XVIIe siècle', intro. to F. de la Varenne, Le cuisinier français (repr. Paris, 1983), p. 14
128. and 'La distinction par le goût', in Histoire de la vie privée, ed. P. Ariès and G. Duby (Paris, 1986), iii. 290
129. J. Corominas, Diccionario crítico etimológico castellano e hispánico (Madrid, 1954-7)
130. 'Gusto'; L. Díez del Corral, El Rapto del Europa, trans. as The Rape of Europe (London, 1959), p. 232
131. For Grecian's role in the eighteenth-century conception of taste, see K. Borinski, Baltasar Gracián und the Hofliteratur in Deutschland (Halle an der Saale, 1971)
132. De Garine, L'Histoire des Moeurs, ed. Poirier, i. 1586 ff
133. For the reassessment of early modern taste in light of Le Cuisinier français, see M. Dembiúska, 'Kuchnia średnowieczna. Nowozytna czy Narodowa?', Kwartalnik Historii Cullury Materialnej, xxxii (1984), 549-56
134. Abbé Raynal, A Philosophical and Political History of the Settlements and Trade of the Europeans in the East and West Indies, trans. from the French by J. Justamond (London, 1777), i. bk. 1, p. 22
135. A. Dumas, Le Grand Dictionnaire de la Cuisine (Paris, 2000), p. 452
136. indictments are also to be found in S. Mercier, Tableau de Paris (Amsterdam, 1782-3), 8 vols
137. Flandrin, 'La distinction par le goût', p. 290
138. Such themes were closely linked to the mercantilist position as far as the political economy was concerned and which sought to minimize the expenditure of national bullion on the profligate luxuries of the East: M. Jeanneret, A Feast of Words: Table Talk in the Renaissance (Cambridge, 1991), p. 4
139. F. Braudel, Civilisation matérielle, economie, et capitalisme: XVe-XVIIIe siècle (Paris, 1966), i. 139-44
140. B. K. Wheaton, Savouring the Past: The French Kitchen and Table from 1300 to 1789 (Philadelphia, 1983), chs. 3-4
141. For an example of the medieval obsessions with satiation and abundance, see G. de Resende, Crónia de-El Rei D. João II (Lisbon, 1902), ii. cap. XXIV, 88-90 and CXXV, pp. 90-2
142. The orthodoxy is challenged by Flandrin who, after counting the dishes presented between the Menagier de Paris (c. 1393, repr. Paris, 1846)
143. and F. Massialot's Le Cuisinier royal et bourgeois . . . ouvrage très-utile dans les familles (Paris, 1691), challenges the claim that quantity diminished and suggests that medieval feasts had less to do with finesse or vulgarity of tastes than with compedtion for social prestige: 'La distinction par le goût', p. 282
144. P. Belon, L'Histoire de la nature des oyseaux, avec leurs descriptions et naïfs portraicts retirez du naturel (Paris, 1555), p. 62
145. T. E. Acree et al., 'Basic Dimensions of Taste in Man', in Handbook of Sensory Physiology, ed. L. M. Beidler (Berlin, 1971), iv. pt. 2
146. for the pretensions of a philosophe of taste see, e.g., F. Algarotti, 'Pensieri diversi', in his Opere (Venice, 1792), vii. 57
147. P. Camporesi, Il brodo indiano. Edonismo ed esotismo nel settecento (Milan, 1990), pp. 7-10
148. See P. Gillet, Par mets et par vins. Voyages et gastronomie en Europe, XVI-XVIII siècles (Paris, 1985), pp. 157-67
149. Flandrin, 'La révolution culinaire du XVIIe siècle', p. 16
150. The Viandier of Taillevent: An Edition of All Extant Manuscripts, ed. T. Scully (Ottawa, 1988)
151. C. da Messisbugo, Libro Novo nel quale si insegna il modo di ordinare banchetti, apparechiare tavole etc. (Venice, 1581), though the work first appeared in Venice in 1491
152. H. Mauruschat, Gewürze, Zucker und Salz im vorindustriellen Europa. Eine preisgeschichtliche Untersuchung (Göttingen, 1975), tabelle 2: 'Preise in Frankreich'
153. N. Boileau, 'Le Repas ridicule', 'Satire III, in Oeuvres, ed. S. Menant and J. Vercruysse (Paris, 1969), i. line 119
154. A line of criticism of 'disguised', 'titivated', and 'complicated' foods can be traced through P. Boaistuau, Le Théâtre du Monde (1558; repr. Geneva, 1981)
155. as well as L. Fioravanti, Miroir universel des arts et sciences en général, trans. P. Cavellat (Paris, 1586), i. 10A
156. du Verdier, Les diverses Leçons: contenons plusieurs histoires, discours, et faicts mémorables; Receuillis des auteurs Grecs, Latins, et Italiens (Lyon, 1592), ch. 23
157. T. Tryon, Treatise of Cleanness in Meals and Drinks, of the Preparation of Food, the Excellency of Good Airs, and the Benefits of Clean Sweet Beds (London, 1682)
158. idem, The Way to Health, Long Life, and Happiness (London, 1683), p. 59
159. Food in Change: Eating Habits from the Middle Ages to the Present Day, ed. A. Fenton and E. Kisbán (Edinburgh, 1986)
160. following W. Abel, 'Wandlungen des Fleischverbrauchs und Fleischversorgung in Deutschland', Bericht über Landwirtschaft, xxii (1938), 411-52
161. These are contrary to the findings of the the section of the École Pratique des Hautes Études published in Annales (ESC) between 1958 and 1965 as reported by P. Chaunu, European Expansion in the Later Middle Ages (Amsterdam, 1979), p. 298
162. F. Braudel, 'The Decline in the Vogue for Pepper after 1650', Capitalism and Material Life, pp. 152-5
163. Flandrin, 'La distinction par le goût', iii. 290
164. For colourants, see A. Grieco, The Meal (London, 1992)
165. A. Corbin, Le miasme et la jonquille. L'odorat et l'imaginaire social, 18e-19e siècles (Paris, 1982), p. 90
166. in the Pindaric ode of Lady Winchilsea (1661-1720): 'Now the Jonquille o'ercomes the feeble Brain ... faint beneath the aromatick pain': 'The Spleen', in Miscellany Poems, on Several Occasions: Written by a Lady (London 1713), p. 90
167. Encylopédie (1765), entry under 'parfum'
168. Kennett, A History of Perfume
169. Braudel, Civilisation matérielle, ii. 188-91. Mauruschat, in his analysis of German cake recipes, suggests that the application of spices diminished markedly between the Leipziger Kochbuch/vorgestellet von SE (Leipzig, 1706)
170. and the Neues hannōverisches Kochbuch, in zwey Theilen (3 Aufl.) (Hanover, 1803): Gewürze, Zucker und Salz im voriniustriellen Europa, p. 162
171. G. Botero, The Travellers Breviat (1601; repr. Amsterdam, 1969), p. 84
172. Attempts have been made to link the aesthetics of culinary taste with feminine beauty: thus, the pudgy archetypal Rubens model is associated with the prevalent taste for les sauces grasses: J.-L. Flandrin and M.-C. Phan, 'Les métamorphoses de la beauté féminine', L'Histoire, lxviii (1984), 50-7
173. A. Franklin, La vie privée d'autrefois: arts et metiers, modes, moeurs, usages des Parisiens, du XIIe au XVIII siècles (27 vols., Paris, 1887-1902)
174. P. Freedman traces both contempt for rustics and a link to their consumption of pepper in the fifteenth-century poetry of Eustache Deschamps and a fifteenth-century medical writer commenting on the Regimen sanitatis Salernitanum, 'Spices and Late-Medieval European Ideas of Scarcity and Value', Speculum, lxxx (2005), 1215
175. Flandrin, 'La révolution culinaire', p. 16
176. R. K. Müller and O. Prokop, 'Geschichte der Genußgifte', in Gifle. Geschichte der Toxicologie, ed. M. Amberger-Lahrmann and D. Schmähl (Heidelberg, 1988), p. 266
177. M. Morineau, Ces incroyables gazettes et fabuleux métaux... (Paris, 1983), p. 264
178. S. Halikowski Smith, 'Portugal and the European Spice Trade, 1480-1580' (Ph.D. dissertation, European University Institute, 2001), p. 5
179. Consumption and the World of Goods, ed. Brewer and Porter, p. 81
180. M. Berg, 'Manufacturing the Orient: Asian Commodities and European Industry (1500-1800)', Prodotti e Techniche d'Oltremare nelle Economie Europee, secc. XIII-XVIII, ed. S. Cavaciocchi (Florence, 1998), p. 393
181. Elias, Development of Manners
182. H. Spode, 'Der große Emüchterer. Zur Ortsbestimmung des Kaffees im Prozesse der Zivilisation', in Kaffee im Spiegel europäischer Trinksitten, ed. D. U. Ball (Zurich, 1991), p. 219
183. The phrase nüchterne Räusche is that of E. Friedell, Kulturgeschichte der Neuzeit (Munich, 1927)
184. See Braudel, Capitalism and Material Life, p. 122
185. H. Leibenstein, 'Bandwagon, Snob, and Veblen Effects in the Theory of Consumers' Demand', in Quarterly Journal of Economics, lxiv (1950), 183-207
186. Caption in an exhibition on paprika, Budapest, Országos Mezogazdasági Múzeum, Nov. 1998
187. The most famous theory of demystification is the Entzauberung or disenchantment theory of M. Weber, Essays in Sociology (London, 1948), p. 155
188. For the marvellous, God-given, and paradisiacal attributes of spices, see Halikowski Smith, 'Mystification of Spices', passim