Early bronze age graves at Gre Virike (period II b): An extraordinary cemetery on the middle Euphrates

Journal of Near Eastern Studies

Volumn 65, Issue 1, 2006, Pages 1-37

  Ökse, A Tuba ^a  

^a HACETTEPE UNIVERSITY   (Turkey)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 61149095302     PISSN: 00222968     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1086/504902     Document Type: Article

References (154)

1. For the first survey, see G. Algaze and A. Misir, "Excavations at Titriş Höyük: A Small Mid-Late Thǐrd Millennium Urban Center in Southeastern Anatolia, 1992," 15. Kazi Sonuçlan Toplantisi, vol. 1 (Ankara, 1994), pp. 54-55;
2. for the second survey, see my article "1998 Survey at Gre Virike," in N. Tuna and J. Öztürk, eds., Salvage Project of the Archaeological Heritage of the Ilisu and Carchemish Dam Reservoirs Activities in 1998 (Ankara, 1999), pp. 119-55 (hereafter Salvage Project 1998).
3. For the preliminary reports, see my articles "Excavations at Gre Virike 1999," in N. Tuna et al., eds., Salvage Project of the Archaeological Heritage of the llisu and Carchemish Dam Reservoirs Activities in 1999 (Ankara, 2001), pp. 263-397 (hereafter Salvage Project 1999);
4. "Excavations at Gre Virike 2000," in N. Tuna and J. Velibeyoǧlu, eds., Salvage Project of the Archaeological Heritage of the Ilisu and Carchemish Dam Reservoirs Activities in 2000 (Ankara, 2002), pp. 241-85 (hereafter Salvage Project 2000);
5. "Excavations at Gre Virike 2001," in N. Tuna et al., eds., Salvage Project of the Archaeological Heritage of the Ilisu and Carchemish Dam Reservoirs Activities in 2001 (Ankara, 2004), pp. 179-226 (hereafter Salvage Project 2001).
6. For summaries of the results of the excavations, see my reports with E. Bucak, "Karkamiş Baraji - Gre Virike 1999 Yili Kurtarrna Kazisi," 22. Kazi Sonuçlari Toplantisi, vol. 1 (Ankara, 2001), pp. 191-202;
7. idem, "Karkamiş Baraji - Gre Virike 2000 Yili Kurtarma Kazisi," 23. Kazi Sonuçlari Toplantisi, vol. 2 (Ankara, 2002), pp. 151-62;
8. idem, "Karkamiş Baraji - Gre Virike 2001 Yili Kurtarma Kazisi," 24. Kazi Sonuçlari Toplantisi, vol. 1 (Ankara, 2003), pp. 359-68;
9. see also M. Greaves and B. Helwing, "Archaeology in Turkey: The Stone, Bronze and Iron Ages, 1997-1999," American Journal of Archaeology 105 (2001): 495-96;
10. idem, "Archaeology in Turkey: The Stone, Bronze and Iron Ages, 2000," American Journal of Archaeaology 107 (2003): 87-88.
11. The ceramics have been studied by A. Engin in "Orta Firat Bölgesi'nin Eski Tunç Çaǧi Seramiǧi içerisinde Gre Virike Buluntulannin Yeri ve Önemi" (Ph.D. diss., Hacettepe University, 2003). My dating of the graves on the basis of the ceramic vessels and sherds found therein corresponds to the dates established by Engin in his dissertation, which will soon be published.
12. See my article in Salvage Project 1999, p. 301;
13. regarding the bones of infants, see G. Uysal, "Results of Anthropological Analysis of Gre Virike 1999," Salvage Project 1999, p. 303.
14. See my article in Salvage Project 1999, p. 277 (grave no. L8/003), fig. 22.
15. G. Uysal, "Results of Anthropological Analysis of Urfa-Gre Virike 2000," Salvage Project 2000, p. 282.
16. Uysal, in Salvage Project 2000, p. 282.
17. H. Erkanal, "1989 Girnavaz Kazilan," 12.
18. G. Stein, "1996 Excavations at Hacinebi Tepe," 19. Kazi Sonuçlari Toplantisi, vol. 1 (Ankara, 1998), pp. 184 ff., 201.
19. F. Thureau-Dangin and M. Dunand, Til-Barsib, Haut-commissariat de la République française en Syrie et au Liban, Service des antiquités, Bibliothèque archéologique et historique, vol. 23 (Paris, 1936), p. 109 (hereafter Til-Barsib).
20. M. Behm-Blancke, "Hassek Höyük," Istanbuler Mitteilungen 34 (1984): 50, fig. 7.
21. E. Strommenger and K. Kohlmeyer, Tall Bi'a/ Tuttul - I. Die altorientalischen Bestattungen (Saarbrücken, 1998), pl. 20:11 (hereafter Bi'a);
22. P. Werner et al., Tall Munbāqa-Bronzezeit in Syrien, Veröffentlichung des Hamburger Museums für Archäologie und die Geschichte (Hamburg-)Harburgs, no. 80 (Neumünster, 1998), fig. 30 (hereafter Munbāqa-Syrien).
23. G. Algaze, A. Misir, and T. Wilkinson, "Şanhurfa Museum/University of California Excavations and Surveys at Titriş Höyük, 1991: A Preliminary Report," Anatolica 18 (1992), p. 35;
24. U. B. Alkim, "Tilmen Höyük Çahşmalari 1958-1960 (1962)," Belleten 103 (1962): 455, fig. 28;
25. A. Bounni, "Preliminary Report on the Archaeological Excavations at Tell al-Abd and Anab al-Safinah (Euphrates) 1971-1972," in D. N. Freedman, ed., Archaeological Reports from the Tabqa Dam Project: Euphrates Valley, Syria, Annual of the American Schools of Oriental Research, vol. 44 (Cambridge, Mass., 1979), p. 55 (hereafter Tabqa);
26. E. Carter and A. Parker, "People and the Archaeology of Death in Northern Syria and Southern Anatolia in the Latter Half of the Third Millennium BC," in S. Campbell and A. Green, eds., The Archaeology of Death in the Ancient Near East, Oxbow Monograph 51 (Oxford, 1995), pp. 104 ff. (hereafter Archaeology of Death);
27. H. Hauptmann, "Lidar Höyük 1983," Anatolian Studies 34 (1984): 227;
28. I. Kampschulte and W. Orthmann, Gräber des 3. Jahrtausends im syrischen Eu- phrattal: 1. Ausgrabungen bei Tawi 1975 und 1978, Saarbrücker Beiträge zur Altertumskunde, Band 38 (Bonn, 1984), pp. 75-80;
29. K. Sertok and R. Ergeç, "A New Early Bronze Age Cemetery: Excavations Near the Birecik Dam, SE Turkey, Preliminary Report (1997-98)," Anatolica 25 (1999): figs. 3-6;
30. C. L. Woolley and R. D. Barnett, Carchemish: Report on the Excavations at Djerablis on Behalf of the British Museum, part 3, The Excavations in the Inner Town (London, 1952), pp. 21S ff. (hereafter Carchemish);
31. Stein, Kazi Sonuçlari Toplantisi, vol. 1 (Ankara, 1998), pp. 183, 201, fig. 6;
32. Thureau-Dangin and Dunand, Til-Barsip, pp. 108-9, pl. 32:2.
33. T. A. Holland, "Preliminary Report on Excavations at Tell es-Sweyhat. Syria. 1975," Levant 9 (1977): fig. 6.
34. G. Algaze, M. A. Evins, M. L. Ingraham, L. Marfoe, and K. A. Yener, Town and Country in Southeastern Anatolia II: The Stratigraphic Sequence at Kurban Höyük, Oriental Institute Publications, vol. 110 (Chicago, 1990), pl. 131 E.
35. E. Peltenburg et al., "Jerablus-Tahtani, Syria, 1995: Preliminary Report," Levant 28 (1996): 17, fig. 18:2;
36. idem, "Jerablus-Tahtani, Syria, 1996: Preliminary Report," Levant 29 (1997): 14-15, fig. 14:5.
37. See Uysal in Salvage Project 2000, p. 282.
38. See G. Uysal, "Results of Anthropological Analysis of Urfa-Gre Virike 2001." in Salvage Project 2001, p. 224.
39. R. J. Braidwood and L. S. Braidwood, Excavations on the Plain of Antioch I: The Earlier Assemblages: Phases A-J, Oriental Institute Publications, vol. 61 (Chicago, 1960), p. 343, fig. 228:4, 11 (hereafter Antioch).
40. H. Hauptmann, "Lidar Höyük 1981," Türk Arkeoloji Dergisi 26/1 (1983): 96.
41. Erkanal in 12. Kazi Sonuçlan Toplantisi, vol. 1 (Ankara, 1990), pp. 282-85.
42. R. H. Dornemann, "Tell Hadidi: A Millennium of Bronze Age City Occupation," in Freedman, ed., Tahqa, p. 138.
43. Woolley and Barnett, Carchemish, pl. 56a.
44. See Uysal in Salvage Project 1999, pp. 274-75.
45. C. L. Woolley, Ur Excavations II. The Royal Cemetery: A Report on the Predynastic and Sargonid Graves Excavated between 1926 and 1931 (London, 1934), pl. 11a, 17a/b, 61a (hereafter UE II).
46. T. L. McClellan and A. Porter, "Survey of Excavations at Tell Banat: Funerary Practices," in G. del Olmo Lete and J.-L. Montero Fenollós, eds., Archaeology of the Upper Syrian Euphrates: The Tishrín Dam Area, Aula Orientalis, Supplementa 15 (Barcelona, 1999), p. 108, fig. 3.
47. C. L. Woolley, Ur Excavations VI: The Buildings of the Third Dynasty (London and Philadelphia, 1974), p. 54;
48. P. R. S. Moorey, "Where Did They Bury the Kings of the IIIrd Dynasty of Ur," Iraq 46 (1984): 4.
49. Carter and Parker, Archaeology of Death, p. 107, fig. 14.2-3.
50. See "Grab," in Reallexikon der Assyriologie und vorderasiatischen Archäologie (RLA), vol. 3 (1957-71), pp. 605-10;
51. E. Ebeling, Tod und Leben nach den Vorstellungen der Babylonier (Berlin and Leipzig, 1931), p. 58 (hereafter Tod und Leben);
52. B. Hrouda, "Nachtrag," in A. Haller, Die Gräber und Grüfte in Assur, Wissenschaftliche Veröffentlichungen der Deutschen Orient-Gesellschaft, Band 65 (Berlin, 1954), pp. 183-85 (hereafter Gräber);
53. T. Özgüç, Ön Tarih'te Anadolu'da Ölü Gömme Adetleri, Türk Tarih Kurumu Yayinlari, no. VII/17 (Ankara, 1948), pp. 78 ff. (hereafter Ölü Gömme);
54. J. N. Postgate, "Early Dynastic Burial Customs of Abu Salabikh," Sumer 36 (1980): 77;
55. A. Tsukimoto, Untersuchungen zur Totenpflege (kispum) im alten Mesopotamien, Alter Orient und Altes Testament, Band 216 (Kevalaer and Neukirchen-Vluvn, 1985), pp. 184-86 (hereafter Totenpflege).
56. S. N. Kramer, "The Death of Ur-Nammu and His Descent to the Netherworld," Journal of Cuneiform Studies 21 (1967): 118-19;
57. B. Landsberger, "Die Basaltstele Nabonids von Eski Harran," in Memoriam Halil Edhem Hatira Kitabi I, Türk Tarih Kurumu Yayinlan, no. VII/5 (Ankara, 1947), pp. 127-29;
58. M. Bayliss, "The Cult of Dead Kin in Assyria and Babylonia," Iraq 35 (1973): 123;
59. A. Deimel, "Die Listen über den Ahnenkult aus der Zeit Lugalandas und Urukaginas," Orientalia, n.s., 2 (1920): 32-51;
60. A. Fadhil, "Die in Nimrud/Kalhu aufgefundene Grabinschrift der Jabâ," Baghdader Mitteilungen 21 (1990): 464;
61. e" Rencontre assyriologique Internationale, Mesopotamia, vol. 8 (Copenhagen, 1980), p. 67;
62. J. Scurlock, "Death and Afterlife in Ancient Mesopotamian Thought," in J. M. Sasson, ed., Civilizations of the Ancient Near East, vol. 3 (New York, 1995), pp. 1884, 1889.
63. Some burial practices in modern Turkey and elsewhere in the Middle East appear to be similar to practices in the third millennium B.C., such as burying the corpse with some private belongings or carrying the coffin to the graveyard with the clothes of the deceased draped over the coffin. See A. İnan, Tarihte ve Bugün Şamanzim, Türk Tarih Turumu Yayinlan, no. VII/24b (Ankara, 1986), p. 186;
64. A. Çelik, "Trabzon-Şalpazan Çepni Türkleri'nde Ölümle İlgili Gelenek, Görenek ve İnanmalar," in Geçmişten Günümüze Mezarlik Kültürü ve İnsan Hayatina Etkileri Sempozyumu. 18,-20. 12. 1998 (Istanbul, 1999), p. 296 (hereafter Mazarhk Kültürü);
65. H. Tuǧcu, "Alevî ve Bektaşî Türk Kültüründe Ölüm ve Mezar Kavramlan," in Mezarlik Kültürü, p. 234.
66. Werner, Munbāqa-Syrien, p. 42, fig. 26;
67. G. Algaze and A. Misir, "Şanhurfa Museum/University of California Excavations and Surveys at Titriş Höyük, 1991," 14. Kazi Sonuçlan Toplantist, vol. 1 (Ankara, 1993), p. 160;
68. U. B. Alkim and H. Alkim, "Gedǐkli (Karahöyük) Kazisi Birinci Ön-Rapor," Belleten 117 (1966): "fig. 36;
69. H. McDonald, J. Curtis, and R. Maxwell-Hyslop, "Third Millennium Metalwork," in D. Oates et al., eds., Excavations at Tell Brak, vol. 2, Nagar in the Third Millennium BC (Oxford, 2001), pp. 234-40; figs. 247, 257 (hereafter Tell Brak);
70. C. Marro, A. Tibet, and R. Ergeç, "Fouilles de sauvetage de Horum Höyük (Province de Gaziantep), troisième rapport préliminaire," Anatolia Antiqua 7 (1998): 289, pl. 9: 7;
71. J.-W. Meyer and A. Pruß, Ausgrabungen in Halawa, vol. 2, Die Kleinfunde von Tell Halawa A (Saarbrücken, 1994), fig. 72 (hereafter Halawa);
72. W. Orthmann, ed., Halawa 1980 bis 1986: Vorläufiger Bericht iiber die 4.-9. Grabungskampagne, Saarbrücker Beiträge zur Altertumskunde, Band 52 (Bonn, 1989), p. 52, fig. 27: 6-8;
73. E. Özgen, B. Helwing, and H. Tekin, "Vorläufiger Bericht über die Ausgrabungen auf dem Oylum Höyük," Istanbuler Mitteilungen 47 (1997): 59-60, 89, figs. 12:2-5, 30: 2-4.
74. Hrouda, in Gräber, p. 1 83.
75. A. M. T. Moore, "The Neolithic of the Levant" (Ph.D. diss., University of Oxford, 1979), p. 167.
76. Özgüç, Ölü Gömme, pp. 11 ff.;
77. J. Mellaart, Çatal Höyük: A Neolithic Town in Anatolia (London, 1967), pp. 28, 31-32, 35, 97-100, 104, 157, 160, 188, 208, 235, 242, 246, 262, fig. 119;
78. J. Garstang, Prehistoric Mersin: Yumük Tepe in Southern Turkey (Oxford, 1953), p. 110;
79. U. Silistreli, "1984 Köşk Höyüǧü, " 7.
80. Kazi Sonuçlari Toplantisi (Ankara, 1985), p. 131.
81. Ö. Bilgi, "Metal Objects from ikiztepe-Turkey," Beiträge zur allgemeinen und vergleichenden Archäologie 6 (1984): 216;
82. A. Palmieri, "Two Years of Excavations at Arslantepe (Malatya)," Türk Arkeoloji Dergisi 19 (1970): 204;
83. idem, "Excavations at Arslantepe (Malatya)," Anatolian Studies 31 (1981): 102.
84. Sumerian Ú.NINDÁ is translated as "ochre"; see R. Labat, Manuel d 'épigraphie akkadienne (Paris, 1963), p. 176 (hereafter Manuel);
85. "Blut," RLA, vol. 2, p. 57.
86. Ebeling, Tod und Leben, p. 35;
87. "Farben (Symbolik)," RLA, vol. 3, p. 25.
88. and for Akkadian pelû and pilû, see W. von Soden, Akkadisches Handwörterhuch, vol. 2 (Wiesbaden, 1965), p. 853b;
89. CAD, vol. 3, pp. 75 ff, s.v. damu.
90. For Hittite ešhar, meaning blood, and ešharuant, meaning red, see J. Friedrich, Hethitisches Wörterhuch (Heidelberg, 1952), p. 43.
91. D. J. McCarthy, "The Symbolism of Blood Sacrifice," Journal of Biblical Literature 88(1969): 172, 175.
92. A. Erkanal, "Mühür Boyamasi ve Ocker Kullanimi üzerine Bazi Düşüneeler," in A. Erkanal et al., eds., In Memoriam İ. Metin Akyurt-Bahattin Devam: Studies for Ancient Near Eastern Cultures (Istanbul, 1995), p. 126.
93. Even today the color red seems to be seen as sacred. In mountainous areas of the Middle East some communities tie pieces of red cloth to the branches of trees at the graves of young family members, symbolizing the desire for the continuation of their lives. See S. V. Örnek, Anadolu Folklorunda Ölüm, Dil ve Tarih Coǧrafya Fakültesi Yayinlan, no. 218 (Ankara, 1979), p. 73 (hereafter Anadolu Folkloru);
94. A. R. Yalman (Yalkin), Cenupta Türkmen Oymaklari, vols. 1-2, Kültür Bakanhǧi Yayinlan, no. 256 (Ankara, 1977), p. 279 (hereafter Türkmen).
95. In Anatolia stones of various colors are hung around the necks of children to protect them from disease. See B. Oǧuz, Türkiye Halkinin Kültür Kökenleri: Teknikleri, Müesseseleri, İnanç ve Âdetleri, vol. 2, Tarun, Hayvancilik, Meteoroloji: Bölütn I: İnançlar (Istanbul, 1980), p. 491 (hereafter Türkiye Kültür).
96. A. Oettel, "Charonspfennig und Totenglöckchen," Altorientalische Forschungen 27 (2000): 113-15.
97. Bells are still an important ritual object in the Middle East today. In Anatolia some communities believe that the bells help to ward off evil spirits (Oguz, Türkiye Kültür, p. 809).
98. W. Orthmann, Der alte Orient, Propyläen Kunstgeschichte, vol. 14 (Berlin, 1975), p. 169, fig. 38.
99. J. Oates, "Equid Figurines and 'Chariot' Models," in Tell Brak, p. 284, fig. 305;
100. R. M. Czichon and P. Werner, Tall Munbāqa - Ekalte I: Die bronzezeitlichen Kleinfunde, Wissenschaftliche Veröffentlichung der Deutschen Orient-Gesellschaft, Band 97 (Saarbrücken, 1998), pp. 152-53 (hereafter Munbāqa-Ekalte I).
101. Tsukimoto, Totenpflege, p. 108;
102. M. H. Pope, "The Cult of the Dead at Ugarit," in G. D. Young, ed., Ugarit in Retrospect: Fifty Years of Ugarit and Ugaritic (Winona Lake, Indiana, 1981), p. 160.
103. M. Andronikos, Totenkult, Archaeologia Homerica, no. 3 W (Göttingen, 1968), pp. 92-93 (hereafter Totenkult).
104. Postgate, Sumer 36, p. 77;
105. A. Erkanal, Anadolu'da Bulunan Suriye Kökenli Mühürler ve Mühür Baskilari, Türk Tarih Kurumu Yayinlari, no. VI/42 (Ankara, 1993), p. 143 (hereafter Suriye Mühürler);
106. M. van Loon, "1974 and 1975 Preliminary Results of the Excavations at Selenkahiye Near Meskene, Syria," Annual of the Schools of Oriental Research 44 (1979): 111.
107. A. Erkanal, Suriye Mühürler, p. 41, pl. 15: 113-X/01, 29: VII3-X/11, 37: lower row.
108. See my article "Suriye Şişelerinin Taşinma Biçimlerine İlişkin Yeni Bir Bulgu," Belleten 253 (2004): 599-612.
109. T. A. Holland, "Preliminary Report on Excavations at Tell es-Sweyhat, Syria, 1973-74," Levant 8 (1976): fig. 15:15;
110. H. McDonald, "Third Millennium Clay Objects," in D. Oates et al., eds., Tell Brak, p. 272, fig. 291;
111. A. Porter and T. McClellan, "The Third Millennium Settlement Complex at Tell Banat: Results of the 1994 Excavations," Damaszener Mitteilungen 10 (1998): 24, fig. 21: 5-11;
112. A. Pruß and C. Link, "Zoomorphe Terrakotten," in J.-W. Meyer and A. Pruß, eds., Halawa, fig. 30: 6-15.
113. Dornemann, Tabqa, fig. 6;
114. Czichon and Werner, Munbāqa-Ekalte I, pl. 57:150, 59:181, 192:180;
115. E. Özgen, H. Tekin, and H. K. Ensert, "Oylum Höyük 1991 ve 1993 Çahşmalan," 16. Kazi Sonuçlari Toplantisi, vol. 1 (Ankara, 1995), p. 99, 101, fig. 2;
116. L. Badre, Les figurines anthropomorphes en terre cuite à l'âge du Bronze en Syrie, Bibliothèque archéologique et historique, vol. 103 (Paris, 1980), pls. 1:5, 9:1, 12:3, 17:3, 24:2-3, 39:19-20, 59:7-8;
117. E. Fugmann, Hama II:1, Fouilles et recherches 1931-1938: l'architecture des périodes pré-heüénistiques, Nationalmuseets Skrifter, no. 4 (Copenhagen, 1958), figs. 85: 3A659, 98: 3A199, 127: 4A571 (hereafter Hama);
118. W. Orthmann, Ausgrabungen in Tell Chuēra in NordostSyrien I: Vorbericht über die Grabungskampagnen 1986 bis 1992, Vorderasiatische Forschungen der Max Freiherr von Oppenheim-Stiftung, Band 2 (Saarbrücken, 1995), fig. 15: 10 (hereafter Chuēra).
119. Orthmann, Chuēra, fig. 16:20;
120. Czichon and Werner, MunbāqaEkalte I, pl. 79:428;
121. Porter and McClellan, Damaszener Mitteilungen 59, fig. 11.
122. O. Loretz, "Nekromantie und Totenevokation in Mesopotamien, Ugarit und Israel," in B. Janowski et al., eds., Religionsgeschichtliche Beziehungen zwischen Kleinasien, Nordsyrien und dem Alten Testament, Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis 129 (Göttingen, 1993), p. 306;
123. A. Pruß and M. Novák, "Terrakotten und Beinidole in sepulkralen Kontexten," Altorientalische Forschungen 27 (2000): 187.
124. Hrouda, in Grüber, p. 184.
125. Bayliss, Iraq 35, p. 116;
126. D. O. Edzard, "Mesopotamien: Die Mythologie der Sumerer und Akkader," in H. W. Haussig, ed., Götter und Mythen im Vorderen Orient, Wörterbuch der Mythologie, vol. 1 (Stuttgart, 1965), p. 47 (hereafter Götter und Mythen);
127. H. Otten, Hethitische Totenrituale (Berlin, 1958), p. 106 (hereafter Totenriluale);
128. A. Skaist, "The Ancestor Cult and Succession in Mesopotamia," in Alster, ed., Death in Mesopotamia, p. 126;
129. E. von Schuler, "Kleinasien: Die Mythologie der Hethiter und Hurriter," in Haussig, ed., Götter und Mythen, p. 203.
130. C. Becker, "Tierknochenfunde - Zeugnisse ritueller Aktivitäten." Altorientalische Forschungen 27 (2000): 173.
131. Funeral meals are still eaten in some regions of Anatolia, and in some areas people regularly sacrifice an animal over the grave (T. Özgüç, Ölü Gönune, pp. 92-95;
132. Yalman, Türkmen, pp. 31,34, 79).
133. Woolley, UE 2, p. 8;
134. P. Michalowski, "The Death of Šulgi," Orientalia, n.s., 46 (1977): 223.
135. Andronikos, Totenkult, pp. 93-94.
136. Otten 1958, Totenrituale, pp. 140-41.
137. B. van de Walle, "Die Mythologie der Ägypter," in P. Grimal, ed., Mythen der Völker, vol. 1 (Frankfurt am Main, 1977), pp. 54-55.
138. A. Erman, Die Religion der Ägypter: Ihr Werden und Vergehen in vier Jahrtausenden (Berlin and Leipzig, 1934), p. 40 (hereafter Religion);
139. "Corn-Osiris," Lexikon der Ägyptologie (LÄ), vol. 2 (1977), pp. 554, 587, 842;
140. LÄ, vol. 4 (1982), pp. 628-30;
141. "Osiris," LÄ, vol. 1 (1975), p. 1087;
142. LÄ, vol. 3 (1980), pp. 744-45;
143. M. J. Raven, "Corn Mummies," Oudheidkundige Mededelingen uit het Rijksmuseum van Oudheden te Leiden 63 (1982): 7-9, 11, 16-17, 30-33.
144. Erman, Religion, pp. 378-79.
145. W. von Soden, "Aus einem Ersatzopferritual für den assyrischen Hof," Zeitschrift für Assyriologie und vorderasiatische Archäologie 45 (1939): 45;
146. P. Taracha, Ersetzen und Entsühnen, Culture and History of the Ancient Near East, vol. 5 (Leiden, Boston, and Cologne, 2000), p. 174.
147. P. Montet, Das alte Ägypten von der Vorgeschichte bis zu Alexander d. Gr. (Essen, 1975), p. 353.
148. The offering of grain at the tomb of the Ottoman Sultan Murat I in Bursa in the nineteenth century A.D. was a remnant of the fertility ceremonies of pagan communities (F. W. Hasluck, Christianity and Islam under the Sultans [Oxford, 1929], p. 106).
149. J. Boese and W. Sallaberger, "Apil-kīn von Mari und die Könige der III. Dynastie von Ur," Alt orientalische Forschungen 23 (1996): 27-30;
150. A. Falkenstein, "Akīti-Fest und Akiti-Haus," in R. von Kienle et al., eds., Festschrift, Johannes Friedrich zum 65. Geburtstag am 27. August 1958 gewidmet (Heidelberg, 1959), pp. 138-40;
151. J.-F. Salles, "Rituel mortuaire et rituel social à Ras Shamra/Ougarit," in Campbell and Green, eds., Archaeology of Death, p. 180.
152. Otten, Totenrituale, p. 37.
153. The dead are still buried near sacred graves in Anatolia and elsewhere in the Near East for the same reason. See R. Lescot, Yezidiler: Din, Tarih ve Toplumsal Hayat, Cebel Sincar ve Suriye Yezidileri üzerine Alan Araştirmasi, trans. A. Meral, Mezopo- tamya Kültürü, no. 96/5 (Istanbul, 2001), p. 248
154. (original title: R. Lescot, Enquête sur les Yezidis de Syrie et du Djebel Sindjār, Mémoires de l'lnstitute français de Damas [Beirut, 1938].