Race as international identity? 'Miscegenation' in the U.S. occupation of Japan and beyond

Amerikastudien

Volumn 48, Issue 1, 2003, Pages 61-77

  Koshiro, Yukiko ^a  

^a NONE

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 60949894360     PISSN: 03402827     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (62)

1. Heide Fehrenbach, "Rehabilitating Fatherland: Race and German Remasculinization," Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 24.1 (1998): 107-27
2. Petra Goedde, "From Villains to Victims: Fraternization and the Feminization of Germany, 1945-1947," Diplomatic History 23.1 (1999): 1-20
3. For recent scholarly debates of the meaning and definition of "race" and the elusive nature of the American concept of "whiteness" in designating "insiders/outsiders" see Peggy Pescoe, "Miscegenation Law, Court Cases, and Ideologies of 'Race' in Twentieth-Century America," Journal of American History 83.1 (1996): 44-69
4. and Mae M. Ngai, "The Architecture of Race in American Immigration Law: A Reexamination of the Immigration Act of 1924," Journal of American History 86.1 (1999): 67-92. In the context of U.S.-Japanese relations, the term 'race' came to represent two separate ideas: race as manifested by physical appearance, and race as an explanation of national power and status in the world
5. Franklin M. Davis, Jr., Come as a Conqueror: The United States Army's Occupation of Germany, 1945-1949 (New York: Macmillan, 1967) 142-43
6. "July 8 Fraternization Interview Date 6/14-19/45 Survey #349-K," Gallup Poll: Public Opinion, 1935-1971 (New York: Random House, 1972) 1:513-14
7. Koshiro 58-60, 69-70
8. For the descriptions of Japanese society under the nonfraternization order, see John Curtis Perry, Beneath the Eagle's Wings: Americans in Occupied Japan (New York: Dodd, 1980) 174-76
9. and John Gunther, The Riddle of MacArthur: Japan, Korea and the Far East (New York: Harper, 1950) 91-92
10. On the conflict between SCAP and the American press over the treatment of mixed-race babies, see Harry Emerson Wildes, Typhoon in Tokyo: The Occupation and Its Aftermath (New York: Macmillan, 1954) 333
11. Koshiro 161, 164
12. Pescoe 46-49
13. Ngai 84-88
14. Koshiro 144
15. For the original arguments, see Kiichi Kanzaki "Is the Japanese Menace in America a Reality?" The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 93 (Jan. 1921): 88-97
16. and Kiyo Sue Inui, "California's Japanese Situation," The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 93 (1921): 97-104
17. Consulate General of Japan, Documental History of Law Cases Affecting Japanese in the United States, 1916-1924 (1925; New York: Arno P, 1978)
18. Pescoe 49
19. Koshiro 160
20. Also see Pescoe 61-7 for legal interpretations after the Perez case
21. So did Brazilian politicians in the 1880s. See Tania R. de Luca, "Ethnic Progress and Civilization: Challengers to the Nation," European Social Science History Conference, Amsterdam, Mar. 1998
22. Koshiro 268-69n38
23. Wartime Japan appreciated the Tripartite Pact with Germany and Italy because it provided Japan with a legitimate link with Western civilization. However, precisely because of that reason, Japan's alliance with Germany posed a serious dilemma because of Hitler's view that the Japanese were not the pure race but the lesser breed as they were non-white. The full Japanese translation of Hitler's Mein Kampf was never made available to the public. See Ben-Ami Shillony, Politics and Culture in Wartime Japan (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1981) 153
24. Shillony 153
25. See John Dower, War Without Mercy: Race and Power in the Pacific War (New York: Pantheon, 1986) 277
26. Also see Koshiro 145-46
27. Koshiro 165
28. Koshiro 166-68, 191-93
29. Koshiro 176-83
30. Koshiro 169-70
31. Koshiro 171-74
32. Opitz 81-82
33. See also Koshiro 183-85
34. Fehrenbach 116
35. st sess., 1953, 99, pt.6: 8039-40
36. nd sess. 1952,1747-48
37. Interpreter Release 23 (28 Feb. 1946): 50
38. and Davis Jr. 251
39. Koshiro 189-91
40. nd sess., 1951, 2
41. Koshiro 163, 188-89
42. Koshiro 191-93
43. Opitz 94
44. See Fehrenbach 125. Fehrenbach also quotes German officials complaining that "American officials made it clear that they didn't want them [Afro-German children] sent to their country" (124)
45. Fehrenbach 125
46. Koshiro 193
47. Koga Yukiyoshi, "Konketsuji no chōsa-jōhō [A note on conditions of mixed-blood children]," Monbu-shō Shotō-Chūtō Kyōiku-kyoku, Konketsuji shidō kiroku (Ministry of Education-Primary and Middle School Division: Record of Instruction on Mixed-Blood Children), vol. 3 (Apr. 1956), 165-81
48. For detail, see Koshiro 193-94
49. Robert Murphy, US Ambassador, letter to Robert J. G. McClurkin, Deputy Director, Office of Northeast Asian Affairs, US State Department (Confidential), 12 Mar. 1953, National Archives, Diplomatic Branch, RG 59, box 5676
50. James Michener, "The Facts about GI Babies," Reader's Digest (Mar. 1954), 6
51. Koshiro 214
52. See Hiroshi Wagatsuma, "Mixed-Blood Children in Japan: An Exploratory Story," Journal of Asian Affairs 2.1 (1977): 9
53. Roberta Levenbach, "Biracial Children in Okinawa," Christian Century 15 Nov. 1972: 1156-9
54. William Burkhardt, "Institutional Barriers, Marginality, and Adoption Among the American-Japanese Mixed Bloods in Japan," Journal of Asian Studies 42.3 (May 1983): 519
55. Koshiro 212-13
56. Koshiro 213-15
57. Also see 280-81nn39, 41, 43 for the Japanese perceptions of white-Japanese and black-Japanese youths in the 1960s
58. Stanley Crouch, "Race Is Over: Black, White, Red, Yellow - Same Difference," The New York Times Magazine 29 Sep. 1996: 170
59. Ruben Martinez, "The Next Chapter: Race Relations," The New York Times Magazine (16 July 2000): 11
60. Joshua R. Goldstein and Ann J. Morning, "The Multiple-Race Population of the United States: Issues and Estimates," Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States 97.11 (23 May 2000): 6230
61. See the multiple-award winning documentary film Doubles: Japan and America's Intercultural Children, dir. Regge Life, Film Library, 1995
62. UEZATO Kazumi, Amerajian - mouhitotsu no Okinawa [AmerAsians - another Okinawa] (Kyoko: Kamogawa Shuppan, 1998) appendix 4-8