The two prime movers of globalization: History and impact of diesel engines and gas turbines

Journal of Global History

Volumn 2, Issue 3, 2007, Pages 373-394

  Smil, Vaclav ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MANITOBA   (Canada)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 60949692283     PISSN: 17400228     EISSN: 17400236     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S1740022807002331     Document Type: Review

References (94)

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2. Richard Alley et al., Climate change 2007: the physical science basis, Geneva: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2007.
3. Thomas L. Friedman, The world is flat: a brief history of the twenty-first century, New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2005.
4. Vaclav Smil, Energy in world history, Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1994.
5. Smil, Energy, p. 231.
6. Nicolaus A. Otto, Improvement in gas-motor engines. Specification forming part of Letters Patent no. 194,047, dated August 14, 1877. Washington, DC: US Patent Office. As with all US patents, a complete filing is now easily available at Google Patents.
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14. Dugald Clerk, 'Oil engine', in Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th edition, vol. 20, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1911, pp. 25-43.
15. Wärtsilä, 'Wärtsilä RT-flex96C and RTA96 (24,000-80,080 kW)', 2007, http://wartsila.com (consulted 1 March 2007);
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33. Friedrich Schildberger, Bosch und der Dieselmotor, Stuttgart: R. Wunderlich, 1951.
34. C. Hamilton Ellis, The lore of the train, New York: Crescent Books, 1977, pp. 203-4.
35. Vaclav Smil, Transforming the 20th century: technical innovations and their consequences, New York: Oxford University Press, 2006, pp. 208-14.
36. John Gorley Bunker, Liberty ships, New York: Arno Press, 1972.
37. Mike Ratcliffe, Liquid gold ships: a history of the tanker, 1859-1984, London: Lloyd's of London Press, 1985.
38. MAN B&W Diesel, Propulsion trends in tankers, Copenhagen: MAN B&W Diesel, 2005.
39. MAN B&W Diesel, Tankers, pp. 10-11.
40. MAN B&W Diesel, Propulsion trends in bulk carriers, Copenhagen: MAN B&W Diesel, 2006.
41. Smil, Transforming, p. 222.
42. Three recent books examine in detail the globally transformative impact of this innovation: Frank Broeze, The globalisation of the oceans: containerisation from the 1950s to the present, St John's: International Maritime History Association, 2002;
43. Marc Levinson, The box: how the shipping container made the world smaller and the world economy bigger, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2006;
44. Brian J. Cudahy, Box boats: how container ships changed the world, New York: Fordham University Press, 2006.
45. MAN B&W Diesel, Propulsion trends in container vessels, Copenhagen: MAN B&W Diesel, 2004, p. 1.
46. Maersk Line, 'Regina Maersk', 2007. http://about.maersk.com/en/Fleet/ Container/ContainerPostPanamax/SeriesK/ ReginaMaersk.htm (consulted 9 March 2007);
47. Maersk Line, 'Emma Maersk', 2007. http://www.maerskline.com/link/?page= brochure&path=/about_us/ facts_and_figures/emma_facts (consulted 9 March 2007).
48. MAN B&W Diesel, Container vessels, pp. 7-8.
49. Barry Rogliano Salles, 'The containership market in 2005', 2006. http://www.brs-paris.com/annual/annual-2006/container/container-a/container-a. php (consulted 9 March 2007)
50. Andrew Nahum, Frank Whittle: invention of the jet, Cambridge: Icon Books, 2004, p. 95;
51. Anonymous, 'First practical gas turbines', New Steam Age 1, 1, pp. 9-10, 20.
52. Kenneth Fulton, 'Frank Whittle (1907-96)', Nature 383, 6595, p. 27;
53. Whittle's US patent (2,404,334, 'Aircraft Propulsion System and Power Unit') is readily accessible at Google Patents; the best website devoted to Whittle's achievements is maintained by the Department of Engineering, University of Cambridge, 'Sir Frank Whittle OM KBE CB FRS', http://www-g.en.cam. ac.uk/125/achievements/whittle/whitt-r.htm (consulted 11 March 2007).
54. The precarious existence of Power Jets, Whittle's company, its eventual nationalization and subsequent development of British jet engines are described in detail in Andrew Nahum, Frank Whittle: invention of the jet, Cambridge: Icon Books, 2004, pp. 23-51 and 108-32.
55. John Golley and Frank Whittle, Whittle, the true story, Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1987;
56. and Edward W. Constant, II, The origins of the turbojet revolution, Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1980.
57. Margaret Conner, Hans von Ohain: elegance in flight, Washington, DC: AIAA, 2001.
58. Nahum, Frank Whittle, pp. 102-3.
59. Cyrus B. Meher-Homji, 'Anselm Franz and the Jumo 004', Mechanical Engineering 119, 9, 1997, pp. 88-91.
60. and in Constant, Turbojet revolution, pp. 195-207.
61. Laurence K. Loftin, Quest for performance: the evolution of modern aircraft, Washington, DC: NASA, p. 410.
62. Nahum, Frank Whittle, pp. 145-53; an easily accessible illustrated account is Royal Air Force Museum, 'Comet - the first jet airliner', 2003, http://www.rafmuseum.org.uk/london/exhibitions/comet/index.cfm (consulted 13 March 2007).
63. Frank R. Sample and Maurice E. Shank. 1985. Aircraft turbofans: new economic and environmental benefits. Mechanical Engineering, 107, 9, pp. 47-53;
64. Michael S. Coalson, 'Jets fans', Mechanical Engineering Supplement: 100 Years of Flight, pp. 16-17, 38.
65. Pratt & Whitney, 'Pratt & Whitney's JT9D', http://www.pw.utc.com/ StaticFiles/Pratt%20&%20Whitney/Assets/Documents/ commercial_2003_jt9d.pdf (consulted 11 March 2007).
66. Vaclav Smil, Energy in nature and society: general energetics of complex systems, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, p. 375.
67. Details on the development of GE90-115B and its technical specifications are available at: Kyohei Horibe et al., 'Development of GE90-115B turbofan engine', IHI Engineering Review, 37, 1, 2004, pp. 1-8,
68. and at GE, 'Model GE90-115B', 2007, http://www.geaviation.com/engines/ commercial/ge90/ge90-115b.html (consulted 12 March 2007). Engines made for superjumbo Airbus 380 are rated either at 374 kN (RR's Trent 900) or 363 kN (GP-7200, a joint GE and P&W product), both with 8.7 bypass ratio: Rolls Royce, 'Trent 900', http://www.rollsroyce.com/civil_aerospace/downloads/ airlines/trent_900.pdf (consulted 11 March 2007).
69. Vaclav Smil, Energy in nature and society, p. 375.
70. Gordon Moore, 'Cramming more components onto integrated circuits', Electronics, 1965, 38, 8, pp. 114-17;
71. Intel., 2003, 'Moore's law', Santa Clara, CA: Intel., http://www.intel.com/research/silicon/mooreslaw.htm
72. Vaclav Smil, Creating the twentieth century: technical innovations of 1867-1914 and their lasting impact, New York: Oxford University Press, 2004;
73. David Edgerton, The shock of the old: technology and global history since 1900, New York: Oxford University Press, 2007.
74. Takeshi Izuta, Progress in marine transportation, Tokyo: Taiyo Shosen Kaisha, 1967, pp. 19.
75. US Energy Information Administration, U.S. imports by country of origin, Washington, DC: EIA, 2007, http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/dnav/pet/ pet_move_impcus_a2_nus-ep00_im0_mbbl_m.htm (consulted 2 August 2007).
76. World Coal Institute, 'Coal facts 2006 edition', 2007, http://www.worldcoal.org/pages/content/index.asp?PageID=188 (consulted 13 March 2007);
77. Christel Heideloff and Dieter Stockman, 'ISL market analysis 2005: major shipping countries', Shipping statistics and market review, 10, 2005, pp. 3-6.
78. Department for Business Enterprise and Regulatory Reform, Coal industry in the UK, 2007, http://www.dti.gov.uk/energy/sources/coal/indsurty/page13125. html (consulted 3 August 2007),
79. Christel Heideloff and Dieter Stockman, 'World seaborne container trade and port traffic', Shipping statistics and market review, 6, 2006, pp. 1-5.
80. Calculated from data in World Trade Organization, International trade statistics 2001, Geneva: WTO, 2001, pp. 29-30.
81. Robert E. Scott, The Wal-Mart effect, Washington, DC: Economic Policy Institute, 2007.
82. ICAO, 'Special report: Annual review of civil aviation', ICAO Journal, 61, 5, 2006, p. 10.
83. ICAO, 'Special report', p. 12.
84. Boeing, Statistical summary of commercial jet airplane accidents: worldwide operations 1959-2005, Seattle, WA: Boeing, 2006.
85. John Croft, 'US FAA to end ETOPS range restrictions for qualified aircraft', Flightgobal.com, 9 January 2007, http://www.flightglobal.com/ articles/2007/01/09/211460/us-faa-to-end-etops- range-restrictions-for- qualified.html (consulted 13 March 2007). This means that airlines can chose fuel- and time-saving direct routes that will put twin-engine planes more than three hours from the nearest airport during a part of their journey.
86. B. L. Koff, 'Spanning the globe with jet propulsion', Arlington, VA: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1991, p. 2;
87. Joosung J. Lee et al., 'Historical and future trends in aircraft performance, cost, and emissions', Annual Review of Energy and Environment, 2001, 26, pp. 167-200.
88. Thomas Abraham, Twenty-first century plague: the story of SARS, Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2005.
89. John S. Brownstein et al., 'Empirical evidence for the effect of airline travel on inter-regional influenza spread in the United States', Public Library of Science Medicine, 2006, 3, p. 10, doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.0030401
90. US Geological Survey, 'Zebra mussels page', 2007, http://nas.er.usgs.gov/ taxgroup/mollusks/zebramussel/(consulted 15 March 2007).
91. A. T. Peterson, R. Scachetti-Pereira and W. W. Hargrove, 'Potential geographic distribution of Anoplophora glabripennis (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) in North America', American Midland Naturalist, 2004, 151, pp. 170-8.
92. Vaclav Smil, 'Peak oil: A catastrophist cult and complex realities', World Watch, 2006, 19, pp. 22-4.
93. R. A. Kerr, 'The looming oil crisis could arrive uncomfortably soon', Science, 316, p. 351.
94. This movement embraces such diverse strands as slow food (for its programmatic statement see: 'Il manifesto dello slow-food' http://editore. slowfood.it/editore/riviste/slowfood/IT/19/articoli/ slowfood19_05.pdf), eco-agriculture, seasonal eating and resurgent farmers markets. The case for local food is made by Brian Halweil, Eat here: reclaiming homegrown pleasures in a global supermarket, Washington, DC: Worldwatch, 2004.