Trophic role of Atlantic cod in the ecosystem

Fish and Fisheries

Volumn 10, Issue 1, 2009, Pages 58-87

  Link, Jason S ^a   Bogstad, Bjarte ^b   Sparholt, Henrik ^c   Lilly, George R ^d  

^a NORTHEAST FISHERIES SCIENCE CENTER   (United States)

^b INSTITUTE OF MARINE RESEARCH   (Norway)

^c H C Andersens Boulevard 44 46 ^*  (Denmark)

^d NORTHWEST ATLANTIC FISHERIES CENTRE   (Canada)

Author keywords

Competitor; Ecological function; Gadus morhua; North Atlantic; Predator; Prey

Indexed keywords

ECOSYSTEM FUNCTION; GADOID; KHONDALITE; PREDATOR-PREY INTERACTION; TROPHIC STATUS;

ARCTIC OCEAN; ATLANTIC OCEAN; BALTIC SEA; BARENTS SEA; CANADA; EURASIA; EUROPE; GEORGES BANK; GULF OF MAINE; ICELAND; NEWFOUNDLAND AND LABRADOR; NORTH AMERICA; NORTH SEA; NORTHERN EUROPE; SCANDINAVIA;

GADIDAE; GADUS MORHUA; MALLOTUS (FISH); MALLOTUS VILLOSUS; OSMERIDAE;

EID: 60649091793     PISSN: 14672960     EISSN: 14672979     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-2979.2008.00295.x     Document Type: Review

References (220)

1. ACIA (Arctic Climate Impact Assessment) 2005) Arctic Climate Impact Assessment. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 1042 pp.
2. Akenhead, S.A., Carscadden, J., Lear, H., Lilly, G.R. Wells, R. (1982) Cod-capelin interactions off northeast Newfoundland and Labrador. In : Multispecies Approaches to Fisheries Management Advice (ed. M.C. Mercer Canadian Special Publication in Fisheries and Aquatic Science 59, 141 148.
3. Andersen, K.P. Ursin, E. (1977) A multispecies extension to the Beverton and Holt theory of fishing, with accounts of phosphorous circulation and primary production. Meddelelser fra Danmarks Fiskeri - og Havundersøgelser Ny Serie 7, 319 435.
4. Anderson, J.T. Rose, G.A. (2001) Offshore spawning and year-class strength of northern cod (2J3KL) during the fishing moratorium, 1994-1996. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 58, 1386 1394.
5. Atkinson, D.B. (1994) Some observations on the biomass and abundance of fish captured during stratified-random bottom trawl surveys in NAFO Divisions 2J and 3KL, autumn 1981-1991. NAFO Science Council Studies 21, 43 66.
6. Atkinson, D.B. Bennett, B. (1994) Proceedings of a northern cod workshop held in St. John's, Newfoundland, Canada, January 27-29, 1993. Canadian Technical Report of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences No. 1999, 64 pp.
7. Atkinson, D.B., Rose, G.A., Murphy, E.F. Bishop, C.A. (1997) Distribution changes and abundance of northern cod (Gadus morhua), 1981-1993. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 54 (Suppl. 1 132 138.
8. Beaugrand, G., Brander, K., Lindley, J.A., Souissi, S. Reid, P.C. (2003) Plankton effect on cod recruitment in the North Sea. Nature 426, 661 664.
9. Benoît, H.P. Chouinard, G.A. (2004) Mortality of northern Gulf of St. Lawrence cod during the period from 1990 to 2003. DFO Can Sci Adv Sec Res Doc 2004/042.
10. Bogstad, B. Gjøsæter, H. (2001) Predation by cod (Gadus morhua) on capelin (Mallotus villosus) in the Barents Sea: implications for capelin stock assessment. Fisheries Research 53, 197 209.
11. Bogstad, B. Mehl, S. (1997) Interactions between Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua) and its prey species in the Barents Sea. In : Forage Fishes in Marine Ecosystems (Proceedings of the International Symposium on the Role of Forage Fishes in Marine Ecosystems). University of Alaska Sea Grant College Program, University of Alaska Fairbanks, Fairbanks, Alaska, Report No 97-01, pp. 591 615.
12. Bogstad, B., Lilly, G.R., Mehl, S., Pálsson, Ó.K. Stefánsson, G. (1994) Cannibalism and year-class strength in Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua L.) in Arcto-boreal ecosystems (Barents Sea, Iceland and eastern Newfoundland). ICES Marine Science Symposium 198, 576 599.
13. Bogstad, B., Hiis Hauge, K. Ulltang, Ø. (1997) MULTSPEC - a multi-species model for fish and marine mammals in the Barents Sea. J Northw Atl Fish Sci 22, 317 341.
14. Bogstad, B., Haug, T. Mehl, S. (2000) Who eats whom in the Barents Sea? NAMMCO Scientific Publications 2, 98 119.
15. Bowen, W.D., McMillan, J. Mohn, R. (2003) Sustained exponential population growth of grey seals at Sable Island, Nova Scotia. ICES Journal of Marine Science 60, 1265 1274.
16. Bowering, W.R. Lilly, G.R. (1992) Greenland halibut (Reinhardtius hippoglossoides) off southern Labrador and northeastern Newfoundland (Northwest Atlantic) feed primarily on capelin (Mallotus villosus). Netherlands Journal of Sea Research 29, 211 222.
17. Bowman, R.E. Michaels, W.L. (1984) Food of seventeen species of northwest Atlantic fish. NOAA Tech Memo NMFS-F/NEC-28.
18. Brander, K. (1988) Multispecies fisheries in the Irish Sea. In : Fish Population Dynamics - The implications for management (Pd Edition) (ed. J.A. Gulland). John Wiley and Sons Ltd, Great Britain, pp. 303 328.
19. Brander, K. (2000) Effects of environmental variability on growth and recruitment in cod (Gadus morhua) using a comparative approach. Oceanologica Acta 23, 485 496.
20. Brander, K.M. Bennett, D.B. (1989) Norway lobsters in the Irish Sea: modelling one component of a multispecies resource. In : Marine Invertebrate Fisheries (ed. J.F. Caddy). John Wiley & Sons, London, UK, pp. 183 204.
21. Brown, W.W. Cheng, C. (1946) Investigations into the food of the cod (Gadus callarias L.) off Bear Island, and of the cod and haddock (G. aeglefinus L.) off Iceland and the Murman Coast. Hull Bulletins of Marine Ecology Volume III, 18, 35 71.
22. Brown, J.A., Pepin, P., Methven, D.A. Somerton, D.C. (1989) The feeding, growth and behaviour of juvenile cod, Gadus morhua L., in cold environments. Journal of Fish Biology 35, 373 380.
23. Bundy, A. (2001) Fishing on ecosystems: the interplay of fishing and predation in Newfoundland-Labrador. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 58, 1153 1167.
24. Bundy, A., Lilly, G.R. Shelton, P.A. (2000) A mass balance model of the Newfoundland-Labrador Shelf. Canadian Technical Report of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 2310, xiv + 157.
25. Burton, M.P.M., Penney, R.M. Biddiscombe, S. (1997) Time course of gametogenesis in northwest Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua). Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 54 (Suppl. 1 122 131.
26. Carscadden, J. Nakashima, B.S. (1997) Abundance and changes in distribution, biology, and behavior of capelin in response to cooler waters of the 1990s. In Forage Fishes in Marine Ecosystems (Proceedings of the International Symposium on the Role of Forage Fishes in Marine Ecosystems). University of Alaska Sea Grant College Program, University of Alaska Fairbanks, Fairbanks, Alaska, Report No 97-01, pp. 457 468.
27. Carscadden, J.E., Frank, K.T. Leggett, W.C. (2001) Ecosystem changes and the effects on capelin (Mallotus villosus), a major forage species. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 58, 73 85.
28. Chouinard, G.A., Sinclair, A.F. Swain, D.P. (2003) Factors implicated in the lack of recovery of southern Gulf of St. Lawrence cod since the early 1990s. ICES CM 2003/U:04.
29. Christensen, V., Guénette, S., Heymans, J.J., Walters, C.J., Watson, R., Zeller, D. Pauly, D. (2003) Hundred-year decline of North Atlantic predatory fishes. Fish and Fisheries 4, 1 24.
30. Clark, D.S., Brown, J.A., Goddard, S.J. Moir, J. (1995) Activity and feeding behavior of Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua) in sea pens. Aquaculture 131, 49 57.
31. Cohen, E.B., Grosslein, M.D., Sissenwine, M.P., Steimle, F. Wright, W.R. (1982) Energy budget of Georges Bank. Canadian Special Publication in Fisheries and Aquatic Science 59, 95 107.
32. Colbourne, E.B. Anderson, J.T. (2003) Biological response in a changing ocean environment in Newfoundland waters during the latter decades of the 1900s. ICES Marine Science Symposium 219, 169 181.
33. Cushing, D.H. (1980) The decline of the herring stocks and the gadoid outburst. Journal du Conseil International pour l'Exploration de la Mer 39, 70 81.
34. Daan, N., Rjinsdorp, A.D. van Overbeeke, G.R. (1985) Predation by North Sea herring Clupea harengus on eggs of plaice Pleuronectes platessa and cod Gadus morhua. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 114, 499 506.
35. Daan, N., Heessen, H.J.K. Pope, J.G. (1994) Changes in the North Sea cod stock during the twentieth century. ICES Marine Science Symposium 198, 229 243.
36. Dalpadado, P. Bogstad, B. (2004) Diet of juvenile cod (age 0-2) in the Barents Sea in relation to food availability and cod growth. Polar Biology 27, 140 154.
37. Daníelsson, Á., Stefánsson, G., Baldursson, F.M. Thórarinsson, K. (1997) Utilization of the Icelandic cod stock in a Multispecies Context. Marine Resources Economics 12, 329 344.
38. Dawe, E.G., Dalley, E.L. Lidster, W.W. (1997) Fish prey spectrum of short-finned squid (Illex illecebrosus) at Newfoundland. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 54 (Suppl. 1 200 208.
39. DFO (Department of Fisheries and Oceans) 2003) Northern (2J + 3KL) cod. DFO Can Sci Advis Sec Status Report 2003/018.
40. Drinkwater, K.F. (2002) A review of the role of climate variability in the decline of northern cod. American Fisheries Society Symposium 32, 113 130.
41. Drinkwater, K.F. (2005) The response of Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua) to future climate change. ICES Journal of Marine Science 62, 1327 1337.
42. Dutil, J.D. Lambert, Y. (2000) Natural mortality from poor condition in Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua). Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 57, 826 836.
43. Dutil, J.D., Lambert, Y. Chabot, D. (2003) Winter and spring changes in condition factor and energy reserves of wild cod compared with changes observed during food-deprivation in the laboratory. ICES Journal of Marine Science 60, 780 786.
44. FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization) 1998) The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 1998. FAO, Rome, Italy.
45. Floeter, J., Kempf, A., Vinther, M., Schrum, C. Temming, A. (2005) Grey gurnard (Eutrigla gurnadus) in the North Sea: An emerging key predator? Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 62, 1853 1864.
46. Fogarty, M.J. Murawski, S.A. (1998) Large-scale disturbance and the structure of marine ecosystems: fishery impacts on Georges Bank. Ecological Applications 8, S6 S22.
47. Fogarty, M.J., Cohen, E.B., Michaels, W.L. Morse, W.W. (1991) Predation and the regulation of sand lance populations: An exploratory analysis. ICES Marine Science Symposium 193, 120 124.
48. Folkow, L.P., Haug, T., Nilssen, K.T. Nordøy, E.S. (2000) Estimated food consumption of minke whales Balaenoptera acutorostrata in Northeast Atlantic waters in 1992-1995. NAMMCO Scientific Publications 2, 65 81.
49. Fu, C., Mohn, R. Fanning, L.P. (2001) Why the Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua) stock off eastern Nova Scotia has not recovered. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 58, 1613 1623.
50. Garcia, S. Newton, C. 1997) Current situation, trends, and prospects in world capture fisheries. In : Global Trends: Fisheries Management (eds D. Pikitch, D. Huppert M.P. Sissenwine). American Fisheries Society Symposium 20, Bethesda, MD, USA, pp. 3 27.
51. Garrison, L.P. Link, J.S. (2000a) Dietary guild structure of the fish community in the northeast United States continental shelf ecosystem. Marine Ecology Progress Series 202, 231 240.
52. Garrison, L.P. Link, J.S. (2000b) Fishing effects on spatial distribution and trophic guild structure of the fish community in the Georges Bank region. ICES Journal of Marine Science 57, 723 730.
53. Garrison, L.P., Michaels, W., Link, J.S. Fogarty, M.J. (2000) Predation risk on larval gadids by pelagic fish in the Georges Bank ecosystem: I. Spatial overlap associated with hydrographic features. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 57, 2455 2469.
54. Garrison, L.P., Michaels, W., Link, J.S. Fogarty, M.J. (2002) Spatial distribution and overlap between ichthyoplankton and pelagic fish and squids on the southern flank of Georges Bank. Fisheries Oceanography 11, 267 285.
55. Gislason, H. (1999) Single and multispecies reference points for Baltic fish stocks. ICES Journal of Marine Science 56, 571 583.
56. Gjøsæter, H. (1998) The population biology of capelin in the Barents Sea. Sarsia 83, 453 496.
57. Gjøsæter, H. Bogstad, B. (1998) Effects of the presence of herring on the stock-recruitment relationship of Barents Sea capelin (Mallotus villosus). Fisheries Research 38, 57 71.
58. Gjøsæter, H., Bogstad, B. Tjelmeland, S. (2002) Assessment methodology for Barents Sea capelin (Mallotus villosus Müller). ICES Journal of Marine Science 59, 1086 1095.
59. Gjøsæter, H., Bogstad, B. Tjelmeland, S. (2008). Why did three capelin stock collapses in the Barents Sea affect the ecosystem differently? Marine Biology Research (in press).
60. Gomes, M.C., Haedrich, R.L. Villagarcia, M.G. (1995) Spatial and temporal changes in the groundfish assemblages on the north-east Newfoundland/Labrador Shelf, north-west Atlantic, 1978-1991. Fisheries Oceanography 4, 85 101.
61. Haedrich, R.L. Fischer, J. (1996) Stability and change of exploited fish communities in a cold ocean continental shelf ecosystem. Senckenbergiana Maritima 27, 237 243.
62. Hammill, M.O. Stenson, G.B. (2000) Estimated prey consumption by harp seals (Phoca groenlandica), hooded seals (Cystophora cristata), grey seals (Halichoerus grypus) and harbour seals (Phoca vitulina) in Atlantic Canada. Journal of Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Science 26, 1 23.
63. Hamre, J. (1994) Biodiversity and exploitation of the main fish stocks in the Norwegian - Barents Sea ecosystem. Biodiversity and Conservation 3, 473 492.
64. Hamre, J. (2003) Capelin and herring as key species for the yield of north-east Arctic cod. Results from multispecies model runs. Scientia Marina 67 (Suppl. 1 315 323.
65. Hansen, P.M. (1949) Studies on the biology of the cod in Greenland waters. ICES Rapports et Procés-Verbaux des Réunions du Conseil International pour l'Exploration de la Mer 123, 1 77.
66. Hanson, J.M. Lanteigne, M. (2000) Evaluation of Atlantic cod predation on American lobster in the southern Gulf of St. Lawrence, with comments on other potential fish predators. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 129, 13 29.
67. Hansson, S., Karlsson, L., Ikonen, E. et al. (2001) Stomach analyses of Baltic salmon from 1959-1962 and 1994-1997: possible relations between diet and yolk-sac-fry mortality (M74). Journal of Fish Biology 58, 1730 1745.
68. Haug, T., Lindstrøm, U., Nilssen, K.T., Røttingen, I. Skaug, H.J. (1996) Diet and food availability for Northeast Atlantic minke whales, Balaenoptera acutorostrata. Reports of the International Whaling Commission 46, 371 382.
69. Hauksson, E. Bogason, V. (1995) Food of harp seals (Phoca groenlandica Erxleben, 1777) in Icelandic waters in the period 1990-1994. ICES CM 1995/N:14, 7 pp.
70. Healey, B.P. Stenson, G.B. (2000) Estimating pup production and population size of the northwest Atlantic harp seal (Phoca groenlandica). DFO Can Stock Assess Sec Res Doc 2000/081.
71. Hislop, J.R.G. (1996) Changes in North Sea gadoid stocks. ICES Journal of Marine Science 53, 1146 1156.
72. Hjermann, D.Ø., Bogstad, B., Eikeset, A.M., Ottersen, G., Gjøsæter, H. Stenseth, N.C. (2007) Food web dynamics affect Northeast Arctic cod recruitment. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series B 274, 661 669.
73. Hovde, S.C., Albert, O.T. Nilssen, E.M. (2002) Spatial, seasonal and ontogenetic variation in diet of Northeast Arctic Greenland halibut (Reinhardtius hippoglossoides). ICES Journal of Marine Science 59, 421 437.
74. Hutchings, J.A. (1996) Spatial and temporal variation in the density of northern cod and a review of hypotheses for the stock's collapse. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 53, 943 962.
75. Hutchings, J.A. Myers, R.A. (1994) What can be learned from the collapse of a renewable resource? Atlantic cod, Gadus morhua, of Newfoundland and Labrador. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 51, 2126 2146.
76. Hylen, A. (2002) Fluctuations in abundance of Northeast Arctic cod during the 20th century. ICES Marine Science Symposium 215, 543 550.
77. ICES (International Council for the Exploration of the Sea) 1989) Database report of the stomach sampling project 1981. ICES Cooperative Research Report, No 164. Editor Niels Daan.
78. ICES 1990) Report of the Working Group on Multispecies Assessment of Baltic fish. ICES CM 1990/Assess:1.
79. ICES 1992) Report of the Working Group on Multispecies Assessment of Baltic Fish. ICES CM 1992/Assess:7.
80. ICES 1997) Database report of the stomach sampling project 1991. ICES Cooperative Research Report, No. 219.
81. ICES 2002) Report of the Study Group on Multispecies Assessments in the North Sea. ICES CM 2002/D:04.
82. ICES 2003a) Report of the Study Group on Multispecies Assessments in the North Sea. ICES CM 2003/D:09.
83. ICES 2003b) Report of the Baltic Fisheries Assessment Working Group, Copenhagen 7-16 April 2003. ICES CM 2003/ACFM:21, 522 pp.
84. ICES 2003c) Report of the ICES Advisory Committee on Ecosystems, 2003. ICES Cooperative Research Report, No. 262.
85. ICES 2003d) Report of the Study Group on Multispecies Assessment in the Baltic. ICES CM 2003/H:03, 78 pp.
86. ICES 2003e) Report of the ICES Advisory Committee on Fisheries Management 2003. ICES Cooperative Research Report, No. 261.
87. ICES 2004a) Report of the Working Group on the Assessment of Demersal Stocks in the North Sea and Skagerrak. ICES CM 2004/ACFM:07.
88. ICES 2004b) Report of the North-Western Working Group, Copenhagen 27 April-6 May 2004. ICES CM 2004/ACFM:25, 469 pp.
89. ICES 2004c) Report of the ICES Advisory Committee on Fisheries Management and Advisory Committee on Ecosystem. ICES ADVICE 2004.
90. ICES 2005a) Report of the Working Group on the Assessment of Demersal Stocks in the North Sea and Skagerrak. ICES CM 2005/ACFM:07.
91. ICES 2005b) Report of the Study Group on Multispecies Assessment in the Baltic. ICES CM 2005/H:06, 96 pp.
92. ICES 2005c) Report of the Study Group on Multispecies Assessments in the North Sea. ICES CM 2005/D:06, 159 pp.
93. ICES 2006a) Report of the Northern Pelagic and Blue Whiting Fisheries Working Group, Copenhagen, Denmark, 25 August-1 September 2005. ICES CM 2006/ACFM:05, 241 pp.
94. ICES 2006b) Report of the North-Western Working Group, Copenhagen 25 April-4 May 2006. ICES C.M. 2006/ACFM:26, 604 pp.
95. ICES 2007) Report of the Arctic Fisheries Working Group, Vigo, Spain 18-27 April 2007. ICES C.M. 2007/ACFM:16, 651 pp.
96. IPCC (International Panel on Climate Change) 2007) Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (eds S. Solomon, D. Qin, M. Manning, Z. Chen, M. Marquis, K.B. Averyt, M. Tignor H.L. Miller). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 996 pp.
97. IPCC (International Panel on Climate Change) 2001) Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (eds J.T. Houghton, Y. Ding, D.H.J. Griggs, M. Noguer, P.J. van der Linden, X. Dai, K. Maskell C.A. Johnson). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 881 pp.
98. Jakobsson, J. Stefánsson, G. (1998) Rational harvesting of the cod-capelin-shrimp complex in the Icelandic marine ecosystem. Fisheries Research 37, 7 21.
99. Jensen, A.C. (1972) The Cod. Thomas Y Crowell Co., New York.
100. Jobling, M., Meløy, O.H., dos Santos, J. Christiansen, B. (1994) The compensatory growth response of the Atlantic cod: Effects of nutritional history. Aquaculture International 2, 75 90.
101. Johansen, G.O. (2003) Size-dependent predation on juvenile herring (Clupea harengus L.) by North-east Arctic cod (Gadus morhua L.) in the Barents Sea. Sarsia 88, 136 153.
102. Jørgensen, C., Enberg, K., Dunlop, E.S. et al. (2007) Managing evolving fish stocks. Science 318, 1247 1248.
103. Karlsson, L., Ikonen, E., Mitans, A. Hansson, S. (1999) The diet of salmon (Salmo salar) in the Baltic Sea and connections with the M74 syndrome. Ambio 28, 37 42.
104. Kerr, S.R. (1971) Prediction of fish growth efficiency in nature. Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada 28, 809 814.
105. Kjesbu, O.S. (1994) Time of start of spawning in Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua) females in relation to vitellogenic oocyte diameter, temperature, fish length and condition. Journal of Fish Biology 45, 719 735.
106. Köster, F.W. Möllmann, C. (2000) Trophodynamic control by clupeid predators on recruitment success in Baltic cod? ICES Journal of Marine Science 57, 310 323.
107. Köster, F.W., Möllmann, C., Neuenfeldt, S. et al. (2003) Fish stock development in the Central Baltic Sea (1976-2000) in relation to variability in the environment. ICES Marine Science Symposium 219, 294 306.
108. Krohn, M., Reidy, S. Kerr, S. (1997) Bioenergetic analysis of the effects of temperature and prey availability on growth and condition of northern cod (Gadus morhua). Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 54 (Suppl. 1 113 121.
109. Kurlansky, M. (1997) Cod: A Biography of the Fish that Changed the World. Walker and Co., New York, USA.
110. Lambert, Y. Dutil, J.D. (1997) Condition and energy reserves of Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua) during the collapse of the northern Gulf of St Lawrence stock. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 54, 2388 2400.
111. Lambert, Y. Dutil, J.D. (2000) Energetic consequences of reproduction in Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua) in relation to spawning level of somatic energy reserves. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 57, 815 825.
112. Langton, R.W. (1982) Diet overlap between Atlantic cod, Gadus morhua, silver hake, Merluccius bilinearis, and fifteen other Northwest Atlantic finfish. Fishery Bulletin 80, 745 759.
113. Langton, R.W. Bowman, R.E. (1980) Food of fifteen northwest Atlantic gadiform fishes. NOAA Tech Rep NMFS-SSRF-740.
114. Lear, W.H., Baird, J.W., Rice, J.C., Carscadden, J.E., Lilly, G.R. Akenhead, S.A. (1986) An examination of factors affecting catch in the inshore cod fishery of Labrador and eastern Newfoundland. Canadian Technical Report of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 1469, iv + 71.
115. Lilly, G.R. (1984) Predation by Atlantic cod on shrimp and crabs off northeastern Newfoundland in autumn of 1977-82. ICES CM 1984/G:53.
116. Lilly, G.R. (1987) Interactions between Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua) and capelin (Mallotus villosus) off Labrador and eastern Newfoundland: a review. Canadian Technical Report of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 1567, vii + 37.
117. Lilly, G.R. (1991) Interannual variability in predation by cod (Gadus morhua) on capelin (Mallotus villosus) and other prey off southern Labrador and northeastern Newfoundland. ICES Marine Science Symposium 193, 133 146.
118. Lilly, G.R. (1994) Predation by Atlantic cod on capelin on the southern Labrador and northeast Newfoundland shelves during a period of changing spatial distributions. ICES Marine Science Symposium 198, 600 611.
119. Lilly, G.R. (2001) Changes in size at age and condition of cod (Gadus morhua) off Labrador and eastern Newfoundland during 1978-2000. ICES CM 2001/V:15, 34 pp.
120. Lilly, G.R. Osborne, D.R. (1984) Predation by Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua) on short-finned squid (Illex illecebrosus) off eastern Newfoundland and in the northeastern Gulf of St. Lawrence. NAFO SCR Doc 84/108.
121. Lilly, G.R., Hop, H., Stansbury, D.E. Bishop, C.A. (1994) Distribution and abundance of polar cod (Boreogadus saida) off southern Labrador and eastern Newfoundland. ICES CM1994/O:6, 21 pp.
122. Lilly, G.R., Shelton, P.A., Brattey, J., Cadigan, N.G., Murphy, E.F. Stansbury, D.E. (1999) An assessment of the cod stock in NAFO Divisions 2J + 3KL. DFO Can Stock Assess. Sec Res Doc 99/42, 165 pp.
123. Lilly, G.R., Parsons, D.G. Kulka, D.W. (2000) Was the increase in shrimp biomass on the Northeast Newfoundland Shelf a consequence of a release in predation pressure from cod? Journal of Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Science 27, 45 61.
124. Lilly, G.R., Brattey, J., Cadigan, N.G., Healey, B.P. Murphy, E.F. (2005) An assessment of the cod (Gadus morhua) stock in NAFO Divisions 2J3KL in March 2005. DFO Can Sci Adv Sec Res Doc 2005/018.
125. Lilly, G.R., Wieland, K., Rothschild, B.J. et al. (2008) Decline and recovery of Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua) stocks throughout the North Atlantic. In : Resiliency of Gadid Stocks to Fishing and Climate Change (eds G.H. Kruse, K. Drinkwater, J.N. Ianelli, J.S. Link, D.L. Stram, V. Wespestad D. Woodby). University of Alaska Fairbanks, Alaska Sea Grant, pp. 39 66.
126. Link, J.S. (1999) (Re)Constructing food webs and managing fisheries. Proceedings of the 16th Lowell Wakefield Fisheries Symposium - Ecosystem Considerations in Fisheries Management. Alaska Sea Grant College Program Report No. 99-01. University of Alaska Fairbanks, Fairbanks, Alaska. AK-SG-99-01, pp. 571 588.
127. Link, J.S. (2002) Does food web theory work for marine ecosystems? Marine Ecology Progress Series 230, 1 9.
128. Link, J.S. (2003) A model of aggregate biomass tradeoffs. ICES Annual Science Conference. Theme Session on Reference Point Approaches to Management within the Precautionary Approach, Tallinn, Estonia, ICES CM 2003/Y:08, 28 pp.
129. Link, J.S. Almeida, F.P. (2000) An overview and history of the food web dynamics program of the Northeast Fisheries Science Center, Woods Hole, Massachusetts. NOAA Tech Memo NMFS-NE-159.
130. Link, J. Burnett, J. (2001) The relationship between stomach contents and maturity state for major Northwest Atlantic fishes: new paradigms. Journal of Fish Biology 59, 783 794.
131. Link, J.S. Garrison, L.P. (2002a) Trophic ecology of Atlantic cod Gadus morhua on the Northeast US Continental Shelf. Marine Ecology Progress Series 227, 109 123.
132. Link, J.S. Garrison, L.P. (2002b) Changes in piscivory associated with fishing induced changes to the finfish community on Georges Bank. Fisheries Research 55, 71 86.
133. Link, J.S., Garrison, L.P. Almeida, F.P. (2002) Interactions between elasmobranchs and groundfish species (Gadidae and Pleuronectidae) on the Northeast U.S. Shelf. I: Evaluating Predation. North American Journal of Fisheries Management 22, 550 562.
134. Magnússon, K.G. Pálsson, Ó.K. (1989) Trophic ecological relationships of Icelandic cod. Rapports et Procès-Verbaux des Réunions du Conseil International pour l'Exploration de la Mer 188, 206 224.
135. Magnússon, K.G. Pálsson, Ó.K. (1991a) Predator-prey interactions of cod and capelin in Icelandic waters. ICES Marine Science Symposium 193, 153 170.
136. Magnússon, K.G. Pálsson, Ó.K. (1991b) The predatory impact of cod on shrimps in Icelandic waters. ICES CM 1991/K:31, 17 pp.
137. Marshall, C.T., Kjesbu, O.S., Yaragina, N.A., Solemdal, P. Ulltang, Ø. (1998) Is spawner biomass a sensitive measure of the reproductive and recruitment potential of Northeast Arctic cod? Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 55, 1766 1783.
138. Marshall, C.T., Yaragina, N.A., Lambert, Y. Kjesbu, O.S. (1999) Total lipid energy as a proxy for total egg production by fish stocks. Nature 402, 288 290.
139. Mayo, R.K., O'Brien, L. Wigley, S.E. (1998) Assessment of the Gulf of Maine Atlantic Cod Stock for 1998. NEFSC CRD 98-13.
140. McLaren, I., Brault, S., Harwood, J. Vardy, D. (2001) Report of the Eminent Panel on Seal Management. Department of Fisheries and Oceans, Ottawa, Canada.
141. Mehl, S. Sunnanå, K. (1991) Changes in growth of northeast Arctic cod in relation to food consumption in 1984-1988. ICES Marine Science Symposium 193, 109 112.
142. Mehl, S. Yaragina, N.A. (1992) Methods and results in the joint PINRO-IMR stomach sampling program. In : Interrelations Between Fish Populations in the Barents Sea (Proceedings of the 5th PINRO-IMR Symposium, Murmansk, 12-16 August, 1991). B. Bogstad S. Tjelmeland, eds. Institute of Marine Research, Bergen, Norway, pp. 5 16.
143. Mello, L.G.S. Rose, G.A. (2005) Seasonal cycles in weight and condition in Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua L.) in relation to fisheries. ICES Journal of Marine Science 62, 1006 1015.
144. Methven, D.A. (1999) Annotated bibliography of demersal fish feeding with emphasis on selected studies from the Scotian Shelf and Grand Banks of the northwestern Atlantic. Canadian Technical Report of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 2267, 106.
145. Michalsen, K., Johannesen, E. Bogstad, B. (2008) Feeding of mature cod (Gadus morhua L) at the spawning grounds in Lofoten. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 65, pp. 571 580.
146. Millar, R.B., Fahrig, L. Shelton, P.A. (1990) Effect of capelin biomass on cod growth. ICES CM 1990/G:25, 10 pp.
147. Molenaar, E.J. (2002) Ecosystem-based fisheries management, commercial fisheries, marine mammals and the 2001 Reykjavik Declaration in the context of international law. International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law 17, 561 595.
148. Molenaar, E.J. (2003) Marine mammals: the role of ethics and ecosystem considerations. Journal of International Wildlife Law and Policy 6, 31 51.
149. Möllmann, C. Köster, F.W. (2002) Population dynamics of calanoid copepods and the implications of their predation by clupeid fish in the Central Baltic Sea. Journal of Plankton Research 24, 959 977.
150. Möllmann, C., Kornilovs, G., Fetter, M., Köster, F.W. Hinrichsen, H.-H. (2003) Marine copepod as a mediator between climate variability and fisheries in the Central Baltic Sea. Fisheries Oceanography 12, 360 368.
151. Möllmann, C., Kornilovs, G., Fetter, M. Köster, F.W. (2005) Climate, zooplankton, and pelagic fish growth in the central Baltic Sea. ICES Journal of Marine Science 62, 1270 1280.
152. Murawski, S.A., Maguire, J.J., Mayo, R.K. Serchuk, F.M. (1997) Groundfish stocks and the fishing industry. In : Northwest Atlantic groundfish: Perspectives on a Fishery Collapse (eds J. Boreman, B.S. Nakashima, J.A. Wilson R.L. Kendall). American Fisheries Society, Bethesda, MD, USA, pp. 27 70.
153. Myers, R.A., Hutchings, J.A. Barrowman, N.J. (1996) Hypotheses for the decline of cod in the North Atlantic. Marine Ecology Progress Series 138, 293 308.
154. Nakken, O. (1994) Causes of trends and fluctuations in the Arcto-Norwegian cod stock. ICES Marine Science Symposium 198, 212 228.
155. Nakken, O., Sandberg, P. Steinshamn, S.I. (1996) Reference points for optimal fish stock management. A lesson to be learned from the Northeast Arctic cod stock. Marine Policy 20, 447 462.
156. Narayanan, S., Carscadden, J., Dempson, J.B., O'Connell, M.F., Prinsenberg, S., Reddin, D.G. Shackell, N. (1995) Marine climate off Newfoundland and its influence on Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) and capelin (Mallotus villosus). In : Climate change and northern fish populations (ed. R.J. Beamish Canadian Special Publication in Fisheries and Aquatic Science 121, 461 474.
157. NEFSC (Northeast Fisheries Science Center) 1998) Status of fishery resources off the northeastern United States for 1998. NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-NE-115, Woods Hole, Massachusetts. This "Status of the Stocks" is updated regularly on the webpage: http://www.nefsc.nmfs.gov/sos/ (accessed: 30 October 2004).
158. Neuenfeldt, S. Köster, F.W. (2000) Trophodynamic control on recruitment success in Baltic cod: the influence of cannibalism. ICES Journal of Marine Science 57, 300 309.
159. Nilssen, K.T., Pedersen, O.-P., Folkow, L.P. Haug, T. (2000) Food consumption estimates of Barents Sea harp seals. NAMMCO Scientific Publications 2, 9 27.
160. O'Brien, L. (1999) Factors influencing rates of maturation in the Georges Bank and Gulf of Maine Atlantic Cod stocks. Journal of Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Science 25, 179 203.
161. O'Brien, L. Munroe, N. 2000) Assessment of the Georges Bank Atlantic Cod stock for 2000. NEFSC CRD-00-17.
162. O'Driscoll, R.L., Schneider, D.C., Rose, G.A. Lilly, G.R. (2000) Potential contact statistics for measuring scale-dependent spatial pattern and association: an example of northern cod (Gadus morhua) and capelin (Mallotus villosus). Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 57, 1355 1368.
163. Pálsson, Ó.K. (1983) The feeding habits of demersal fish in Icelandic waters. Rit Fiskideildar 7, 1 60.
164. Pálsson, Ó.K. (1994) A review of the trophic interactions of cod stocks in the North Atlantic. ICES Marine Science Symposium 198, 553 575.
165. Pálsson, Ó.K. (1997) Predator-prey interactions of demersal fish species and capelin (Mallotus villosus) in Icelandic waters. In : Forage Fishes in Marine Ecosystems (Proceedings of the International Symposium on the Role of Forage Fishes in Marine Ecosystems). University of Alaska Sea Grant College Program, University of Alaska, Fairbanks, Fairbanks, Alaska, Report No 97-01, pp. 105 126.
166. Parsons, D.G. (2005) Predators of northern shrimp, Pandalus borealis (Pandalidae), throughout the North Atlantic. Marine Biology Research 1, 48 58.
167. Parsons, D.G. Colbourne, E.B. (2000) Forecasting fishery performance for northern shrimp (Pandalus borealis) on the Labrador Shelf (NAFO Divisions 2HJ). Journal of Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Science 27, 11 20.
168. Parsons, L.S. Lear, W.H. (2001) Climate variability and marine ecosystem impacts: a North Atlantic perspective. Progress in Oceanography 49, 167 188.
169. Pauly, D., Christensen, V., Dalsgaard, J., Froese, R. Torres, F.C. Jr. (1998) Fishing down marine food webs. Science 279, 860 863.
170. Ponomarenko, I.Ya. Yaragina, N.A. (1979) Seasonal and year-to-year fluctuations in the feeding of the Barents Sea cod on Euphausiacea in 1947-1977. ICES CM 1979/G:17, 20 pp.
171. Ponomarenko, V.P., Ponomarenko, I.Ya. Yaragina, N.A. (1978) Consumption of the Barents Sea capelin by cod and haddock in 1974-1976. ICES CM 1978/G:23, 22 pp.
172. Popova, O.A. (1962) Some data on the feeding of cod in the Newfoundland area of the Northwest Atlantic. In : Soviet Fisheries Investigations in the Northwest Atlantic, VNIRO-PINRO, Moscow (ed. Y.Y. Marti Translated for US Department of Interior and National Science Foundation, Washington, DC, by Israel Program of Scientific Translations, Jerusalem, 1963: pp. 228 248).
173. Rae, B.B. (1967) The food of cod in the North Sea and on west of Scotland grounds. Marine Research 1967 (1) : 1 68
174. Rice, J. (1995) Food web theory, marine food webs, and what climate change may do to northern marine fish populations. In : Climate Change and Northern Fish Populations (ed. R.J. Beamish Canadian Special Publication in Fisheries and Aquatic Science 121, 561 568.
175. Rice, J.C., Shelton, P.A., Rivard, D., Chouinard, G.A. Fréchet, A. (2003) Recovering Canadian Atlantic cod stocks: the shape of things to come?. ICES CM 2003/U:06.
176. Rose, G.A. (2005) On distributional responses of North Atlantic fish to climate change. ICES Journal of Marine Science 62, 1360 1374.
177. Rose, G.A. O'Driscoll, R.L. (2002) Capelin are good for cod: can the northern stock rebuild without them? ICES Journal of Marine Science 59, 1018 1026.
178. Rose, G.A., deYoung, B., Kulka, D.W., Goddard, S.V. Fletcher, G.L. (2000) Distribution shifts and overfishing the northern cod (Gadus morhua): a view from the ocean. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 57, 644 663.
179. Scharf, F.S., Juanes, F. Rountree, R.A. (2000) Predator size-prey size relationships of marine fish predators: interspecific variation and effects of ontogeny and body size on trophic-niche breadth. Marine Ecology Progress Series 208, 229 248.
180. Schopka, S.A. (1994) Fluctuations in the cod stock off Iceland during the twentieth century in relation to changes in the fisheries and environment. ICES Marine Science Symposium 198, 175 193.
181. Schweder, T., Hagen, G.S. Hatlebakk, E. (2000) Direct and indirect effects of minke whale abundance on cod and herring fisheries: a scenario experiment for the Greater Barents Sea. NAMMCO Scientific Publications 2, 120 132.
182. Serchuk, F.M. Wigley, S.E. (1992) Assessment and management of the Georges Bank cod fishery: an historical review and evaluation. Journal of Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Science 13, 25 52.
183. Serchuk, F.M., Grosslein, M.D., Lough, R.G., Mountain, D.G. O'Brien, L. (1994) Fishery and environmental factors affecting trends and fluctuations in the Georges Bank and Gulf of Maine Atlantic cod stocks: an overview. ICES Marine Science Symposium 198, 77 109.
184. Shelton, P.A. (1992) Detecting and incorporating multispecies effects into fisheries management in the north-west and south-east Atlantic. South African Journal of Marine Science 12, 723 737.
185. Shelton, P.A. Healey, B.P. (1999) Should depensation be dismissed as a possible explanation for the lack of recovery of the northern cod (Gadus morhua) stock? Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 56, 1521 1524.
186. Shelton, P.A., Fahrig, L. Millar, R.B. (1991) Uncertainty associated with cod-capelin interactions: how much is too much? NAFO Science Council Studies 16, 13 19.
187. Sigurjónsson, J., Galan, A. Víkingsson, G. (2000) A note of stomach contents of minke whales (Balaenoptera acutorostrata) in Icelandic waters. NAMMCO Scientific Publications 2, 82 90.
188. Sissenwine, M.P., Cohen, E.B. Grosslein, M.D. (1984) Structure of the Georges Bank ecosystem. Rapports et Proces-Verbaux des Reunions du Conseil International pour l'Exploration de la Mer 183, 243 254.
189. Skaug, H.J., Gjøsæter, H., Haug, T., Lindstrøm, U. Nilssen, K.T. (1997) Do minke whales Balaenoptera acutorostrata exhibit particular prey preferences? Journal of Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Science 22, 91 104.
190. Sparholt, H. (1990) An Estimate of the total biomass of fish in the North Sea. Journal du Conseil International pour l'Exploration de la Mer 46, 200 210.
191. Sparholt, H. (1994) Fish species interactions in the Baltic Sea. Dana 10, 131 162.
192. Sparholt, H. (1995) Using the MSVPA model to estimate the right-hand side of the Ricker curve for cod in the Baltic. ICES Journal of Marine Science 52, 819 826.
193. Sparholt, H. (1996a) Causal correlation between recruitment and spawning stock size of central Baltic cod. ICES Journal of Marine Science 53, 771 779.
194. Sparholt, H. (1996b) Interaktioner mellem torsk, sild og brisling i Centrale Østersø. Dr of Science Thesis In Danish). Eget forlag, Fredsvej 8a, 2840 Holte, Denmark. ISBN 87-985933-0-7.
195. Sparre, P. (1991) Introduction to multispecies virtual population analysis. ICES Marine Science Symposium 193, 12 21.
196. Stefánsson, G., Skúladottir, U. Pétursson, G. (1994) The use of a stock production type model in evaluating the offshore (Pandalus borealis) stock of north Icelandic waters, including the predation of northern shrimp by cod. ICES CM 1994/K:25.
197. Stefánsson, G., Sigurjónsson, J. Víkingsson, G. (1997a) On dynamic interactions between some fish resources and cetaceans off Iceland based on a simulation model. Journal of Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Science 22, 357 370.
198. Stefánsson, G., Hauksson, E., Bógason, V., Sigurjónsson, J. Víkingsson, G. (1997b) Multispecies interactions in the C Atlantic. NAMMCO SC/5/ME/13.
199. Stefánsson, G., Skúladottir, U. Steinarsson, B.Æ. (1998) Aspects of the ecology of a Boreal System. ICES Journal of Marine Science 55, 859 862.
200. Steinarsson, B.Æ. Stefánsson, G. (1996) Factors affecting cod growth in Icelandic waters and the resulting effect on potential yield of cod. ICES CM 1996/G:32.
201. Stenson, G.B. Perry, E.A. (2001) Incorporating uncertainty into estimates of Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua), capelin (Mallotus villosus) and Arctic cod (Boreogadus saida) consumption by harp seals (Pagophilus groenlandicus) in NAFO Divisions 2J3KL. DFO Can Sci Adv Sec Res Doc 2001/074.
202. Swain, D.P. (1999) Changes in the distribution of Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua) in the southern Gulf of St. Lawrence - effects of environmental change or change in environmental preferences? Fisheries Oceanography 8, 1 17.
203. Swain, D.P. Sinclair, A.F. (2000) Pelagic fishes and the cod recruitment dilemma in the Northwest Atlantic. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 57, 1321 1325.
204. Taggart, C.T., Anderson, J., Bishop, C. et al. (1994) Overview of cod stocks, biology, and environment in the Northwest Atlantic region of Newfoundland, with emphasis on northern cod. ICES Marine Science Symposium 198, 140 157.
205. Templeman, W. (1966) Marine Resources of Newfoundland. Fisheries Research Board of Canada, Bulletin 154, Ottawa, Canada, 170 pp. Bull 154.
206. Thurow, F. (1997) Estimation of the total fish biomass in the Baltic Sea during the 20th century. ICES Journal of Marine Science 54, 444 461.
207. Tsou, T.S. Collie, J.S. (2001a) Estimating predation mortality in the Georges Bank fish community. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 58, 908 922.
208. Tsou, T.S. Collie, J.S. (2001b) Predation-mediated recruitment in the Georges Bank fish community. ICES Journal of Marine Science 58, 994 1001.
209. Turrell, W., Lavin, A., Drinkwater, K.F., St John, M. Watson, J. (eds). 2003. Hydrobiological variability in the ICES Area, 1990-1999. ICES Marine Science Symposium, 219, 453.
210. Uzars, D. Plikshs, M. (2000) Cod (Gadus morhua L.) cannibalism in the Central Baltic: interannual variability and influence of recruit abundance and distribution. ICES Journal of Marine Science 57, 324 329.
211. Vilhjálmsson, H. (2002) Capelin (Mallotus villosus) in the Iceland-East Greenland-Jan Mayen ecosystem. ICES Journal of Marine Science 59, 870 883.
212. Vilhjálmsson, H., Hoel, A.H., Agnarsson, S., Arnason, R., Carscadden, J.E., Eide, A. Fluharty, D. et al. 2005) Fisheries and aquaculture. In : Arctic Climate Impact Assessment (eds C. Symon, L. Arris B. Heal). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 691 780.
213. Vinogradov, V.I. (1984) Food of silver hake, red hake and other fishes of Georges Bank and adjacent waters, 1968-74. NAFO Science Council Studies 7, 87 94.
214. Walters, C. Kitchell, J.F. (2001) Cultivation/depensation effects on juvenile survival and recruitment: implications for the theory of fishing. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 58, 39 50.
215. Westin, L. Nissling, A. (1991) Effect of salinity on spermatozoa motility, percentage of fertilized eggs and egg development of Baltic cod (Gadus morhua) and implications for cod stock fluctuations in the Baltic. Marine Ecology 108, 5 9.
216. Worm, B. Myers, R.A. (2003) Meta-analysis of cod-shrimp interactions reveals top-down control in oceanic food webs. Ecology 84, 162 173.
217. Yaragina, N.A. Marshall, C.T. (2000) Trophic influences on interannual and seasonal variation of liver condition index of Northeast Arctic cod (Gadus morhua). ICES Journal of Marine Science 57, 42 55.
218. Yaragina, N.A., Bogstad, B. Kovalev, Yu.A 2007) Reconstructing the time series of abundance of Northeast Arctic cod (Gadus morhua), taking cannibalism into account. Marine Biology Research, pp. 18 19. (extended abstract) In : Long-term bilateral Russian-Norwegian scientific cooperation as a basis for sustainable management of living marine resources in Barents Sea (Proceedings of the 12th Norwegian-Russian symposium, Tromsø, 21 - 22 August, 2007). IMR/PINRO Report Series 5/2007, 212 pp. T. Haug, O.A. Misund, H. Gjøsæter I. Røttingen, eds.
219. Yodzis, P. (2001) Must top predators be culled for the sake of fisheries? Trends in Ecology and Evolution 16, 78 84.
220. Zatsepin, V.J. Petrova, N.S. (1939) The food of the commercial stocks of cod in the southern part of the Barents Sea (from observations made in 1934-38). Trudy Pol Inst Morsk. Rhyb Khoz Okeanogr 1939, 1 170 (Fish Res Board Can Transl Ser No. 498, 1964).