The Russian "war on drugs": A kinder, gentler approach?

Problems of Post-Communism

Volumn 56, Issue 1, 2009, Pages 23-34

  Orlova, Alexandra V ^a  

^a RYERSON UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 60149090407     PISSN: 10758216     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2753/PPC1075-8216560103     Document Type: Article

References (157)

1. Quoted in Svante E. Cornell and Niklas L.P. Swanstrom, "The Eurasian Drug Trade: A Challenge to Regional Security," Problems of Post-Communism 53, no. 4 (2006): 15.
2. Vladimir B. Poznyak, Vadim E. Pelipas, Anatoliy N. Vievski, and L. Miroshnichenko, "Illicit Drug Use and Its Health Consequences in Belarus, Russian Federation, and Ukraine: Impact of Transition," European Addiction Research 8 (2002): 185.
3. Tamara Makarenko. "Crime, Terror, and the Central Asian Drug Trade," Harvard Asia Quarterly 6, no. 3 (2002).
4. B.P. Tselinskii, "Sovremennaia narkosituatsiia v Rossii: Tendentsii i perspektivy" (Current Drug Situation in Russia: Tendencies and Prospects), Organizovannaia prestupnost i korruptsia 4 (2003): 21.
5. Ibid.; K. Khachatourian, "Kriminologicheskaia kharakteristika nezakonnogo obotota narkotikov v Rossiiskoi Federatsii v 1999 godu" (Criminological Characteristics of the Illegal Drug Traffic in the Russian Federation in 1999). Voprosy narkologii 1 (2000): 13-19.
6. Letizia Paoli, "The Development of an Illegal Market: Drug Consumption and Trade in Post-Soviet Russia," British Journal of Criminology 42 (2002): 27.
7. Tselinskii, "Sovremennaia narkosituatsiia v Rossii," p. 21.
8. Paoli, "Development of an Illegal Market," p. 23.
9. Abdula G. Museibov, "Regionalnye praktiki po preduprezhdeniu nezakonnogo oborota narkotikov" (Regional Practices Aimed at Preventing Illegal Drug Traffic), Sotsiologicheskie issledovaniia 7 (2003): 127.
10. Letizia Paoli, "The Price of Freedom: Illegal Drug Markets and Policies in Post-Soviet Russia," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 582 (2002): 170-71.
11. Museibov, "Regionalnye praktiki po preduprezhdeniu nezakonnogo oborota narkotikov," p. 126; Letizia Paoli, "Drug Trafficking in Russia: A Form of Organized Crime?" Journal of Drug Issues 31, no. 4 (2001): 1008.
12. Quoted in John M. Kramer, "Drug Abuse in Russia. Emerging Pandemic or Overhyped Diversion?" Problems of Post-Communism 50, no. 6 (2003): 18.
13. Paoli, "Price of Freedom," p. 174; UN Office on Drug Control and Crime Prevention, Annual Field Report 2000: Russia (New York: UNODCCP, 2001).
14. Louise Shelley, "The Drug Trade in Contemporary Russia," China and Eurasia Forum Quarterly 4, no. 1 (2006): 16, 18.
15. Tselinskii, "Sovremennaia narkosituatsiia v Rossii," p. 22.
16. Shelley, "Drug Trade in Contemporary Russia," p. 17.
17. Paoli, "Development of an Illegal Market," p. 32.
18. Alexandra V. Orlova and James W. Moore, "'Umbrellas' or 'Building Blocks'? Defining International Terrorism and Transnational Organized Crime in International Law," Houston Journal of International Law 27, no. 2 (2005): 294.
19. Paoli, "Drug Trafficking in Russia," p. 1014.
20. Ibid., p. 1015.
21. Ibid., p. 1023.
22. Tselinskii, "Sovremennaia narkosituatsiia v Rossii," p. 23.
23. Paoli, "Drug Trafficking in Russia," pp. 1023-24; Vladimir Paramonov and Aleksei Strokov, "Raspad SSSR i ego posledstviia dlia Uzbekistana: Ekonomika i sotsialnaia sfera" (The Consequences of the Fall of the USSR for Uzbekistan's Economic and Social Spheres), Conflict Studies Research Centre, Central Asian Series, April 2006, 06/11 (R).
24. L.I. Romanova, "Antinarkoticheskie programmy dolzhny byt effektivnymi" (Anti-Drug Programs Must Be Effective), Rossiiskii uridicheskii zhurnal 3 (2006): 103; Museibov, "Regionalnye praktiki po preduprezhdeniu nezakonnogo oborota narkotikov," p. 128.
25. Paoli, "Price of Freedom," p. 176.
26. V. Voronin, "Opredelit zakonom krupnyi razmer narkoticheskikh sredstv" (The Law Needs to Set the Meaning of Large Amounts of Narcotic Substances), Rossiiskaia ustitsiia 2 (2003): 43.
27. E.A. Babayan, Billuten verhovnogo suda Rossiiskoi Federatsii (Bulletin of the Russian Supreme Court) 10 (1998): 14-17.
28. Voronin, "Opredelit zakonom krupnyi razmer narkoticheskikh sredstv," p. 43.
29. Poznyak et al., "Illicit Drug Use and Its Health Consequences," p. 187.
30. Federal Law on Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances, No. 3-FZ, January 8, 1998, §31.
31. Ibid., §55 (2).
32. Poznyak et al., "Illicit Drug Use and Its Health Consequences," p. 187.
33. Romanova, "Antinarkoticheskie programmy dolzhny byt effektivnymi," 105.
34. R.A. Aleksandrov, "Stanovlenie i razvitie ugolovno-pravovogo protivodeistviia nezakonnomu oborotu narkotikov v SSSR v 20-30-e gody XX veka" (Establishment and Development of the Criminal-Legal Opposition to the Illicit Traffic in Narcotics in the USSR During the 1920s and 1930s), Istoriia gosudarstva iprava 6 (2007): 17-19; Paoli, "Price of Freedom," p. 175.
35. Romanova, "Antinarkoticheskie programmy dolzhny byt effektivnymi," p. 108.
36. The official resolution creating the agency was published in Rossiiskaya gazeta (June 11, 2003): 9.
37. Kramer. "Drug Abuse in Russia," p. 20.
38. Internet Conference of the President of the Russian Federation V.V. Putin (July 6, 2006), www.narkotiki.ru.
39. D.S. Novikov, "Problemmy profilaktiki narkomanii" (Problems of Addiction Prevention), in Materialy nauchno-prakticheskoi konferentsii Kaliningradskogo Uridicheskogo Institute MVD Rosii. Teoriia i praktika pravookhranitelnoi deiatelnosti (Conference Materials of the Kaliningrad MVD Law Institute, entitled "Theory and Practice of Law Enforcement Activities") (Kaliningrad, 2006), p. 157.
40. Viktor Cherkesov, "Strana otoshla ot kriticheskogo poroga" (The Country Has Moved Away from a Critical Mark), Nezavisimaya gazeta (November 20, 2006).
41. Viktor Cherkesov, "Glavnoi prichinoi usugubleniia narkoobstanovki stali vneshnie prichiny" (External Forces Play the Main Role in the Worsening of the Drug Situation), interview on Echo Moskvy Radio (July 1, 2004), www.narkotiki.ru.
42. Zasedanie pravitelstvennoi komissii po protivodeistviu zloupotrebleniu narkoticheskimi sredstvami i ikh nezakonnomu oborotu (Session of the Governmental Commission on Preventing Illicit Drug Use and Trafficking), September 18, 2006, www.narkotiki.ru.
43. Semeyon Gorelik, "Sbyval narkotik putem inektsii koshke" (Drug Trafficking by Way of an Injection to a Cat), February 2, 2004, www.utro.ru.
44. "Pravitelstvo RF uzakonilo ispolzovanie ketamina v veterinarii" (Government Legalized the Use of Ketamine in Veterinary Practice), September 6, 2004, www.newsru.com.
45. "Verhovnyi Sud postavil tochku v 'ketaminovykh' delakh" (Supreme Court Reached a Conclusion in the Ketamine Process), July 14, 2006, www.regnum.ru.
46. Viktor Cherkesov, "Kak sdelat borbu s narkotikami effektovnoi?" (How to Make the Anti-Drug Struggle Effective?), interview on Echo Moskvy Radio (November 30, 2006), www.narkotiki.ru.
47. "Stenogramma internet-konferentsii s nachalnikom upravleniia mezhvedomstvennogo vzaimodeistviia v sfere profilaktiki FSKN RF Aleksandrom Sergeevichem Yanevskim" (Record of the Internet Conference with the Head of the Addiction Prevention Division of the FSKN, Alexander Sergeevich Yanevskii), February 22, 2007, www.narkotiki.ru; Poznyak et al., "Illicit Drug Use and Its Health Consequences," p. 188; Marisa L. Maskas, "Trafficking Drugs: Afghanistan's Role in Russia's Current Drug Epidemic," Tulsa Journal of Comparative and International Law 13 (2005): 174-75.
48. Cherkesov, "Glavnoi prichinoi usugubleniia narkoobstanovki stali vneshnie prichiny."
49. Cherkesov, "Strana otoshla ot kriticheskogo poroga."
50. Putin Internet Conference.
51. Olga Krychtanovskaya and Stephen White, "Inside the Putin Court: A Research Note," Europe-Asia Studies 57, no. 7 (2005): 1065-75.
52. Kramer, "Drug Abuse in Russia," p. 20.
53. "Desiat mesiatsev odnogo goda" (Ten Months of One Year), Chelovek i zakon 12 (2005);
54. R.A. Aleksandrov, "Vzaimosviaz narkobiznesa i natsionalnoi bezopasnosti Rossii" (Connection Between the Drug Business and Russia's National Security), Rossiiskii sledovatel (Russian Inspector) 2 (2006): 55; Cherkesov, "Kak sdelat borbu s narkotikami effektovnoi?"
55. Aleksandr Birin, "S nachala 2007 goda v Moskve vyiavleno pochti 1200 prestuplenii v sfere nezakonnogo oborota narkotikov" (From the Beginning of 2007 There Have Been 1200 Crimes Committed in Moscow Connected with Drug Trafficking), www.narkotiki.ra.
56. "Federalnaia Sluzhba po Narkokontrolu informituet" (The FSKN Informs), November 16, 2007, www.narkotiki.ru.
57. Cherkesov, "Glavnoi prichinoi usugubleniia narkoobstanovki stali vneshnie prichiny"; idem, "Kak sdelat borbu s narkotikami effektovnoi?"; A.E. Kudrov, "Osobennosti prokurorskogo nadzora za deiatelnostu pravookhranitelnykh organov pri rassledovanii prestuplenii v sfere nezakonnogo oborota narkotikov" (The Specifics of Prosecutor Supervision over Actions of Law Enforcers in Investigations of Crimes Connected with Drug Trafficking), in Materialy nauchno-prakticheskoi konferentsii Kaliningradskogo Uridicheskogo Institute MVD Rosii, p. 82.
58. David Nowak, "5 Drag Officers Found Guilty of Assaulting Transport Cops," Moscow Times (October 16, 2007): 3.
59. Francesca Mereu, "Drug Cop's Arrest Under Appeal," Moscow Times (October 17, 2007): 3.
60. Viktor Cherkesov, "Nelzia dopustit, chtoby voiny prevratilis v torgovtsev" (Preventing Turning Warriors into Traders), Kommersant (October 9, 2007).
61. "FSB vziala v oborot narkotiki" (FSB Clamped Down on Drugs), Kommersant (October 4, 2007).
62. "Prezident ne sognul svoi 'liniu'" (President Did Not Depart from His View), Kommersant (October 19, 2007).
63. Francesca Mereu and Kevin O'Flynn, "In Turf War, Putin Scolds Ally and Gives Him a Job," Moscow Times (October 22, 2007): 1; Ukaz Prezidenta RF (Presidential Decree) "O dopolnitelnykh merakh po protivodeistviu nezakonnomu oborotu narkoticheskikh sredstv, psikhotropnykh veschestv i ikh prekursorov" (On Additional Measures to Combat Illicit Traffic in Drugs, Psychotropic Substances and Their Precursors), October 20, 2007.
64. Under Putin, control of the "commanding heights" of the Russian economy was transferred from the oligarchs to individuals in the security services; see Daniel Treisman, "Putin's Silovarchs," Orbis 51, no. 1 (2007): 146. While oligarchs actually "owned billion-dollar properties outright," individuals from the "power ministries" "mostly just control companies through positions in management or on supervisory boards." Dmitry Medvedev's succession to the presidency and Putin's shift to the prime minister's office has created a sense of instability in the security agencies and fears that they might lose political power and influence and, hence, control over their businesses (both legal and semi-legitimate; see Pavel K. Baev, "Infighting Among Putin's Siloviki Escalates to a 'Clan War,'" Eurasia Daily Monitor (October 11, 2007);
65. Francesca Mereu, "Security Infighting All About Money," Moscow Times (October 29, 2007): 1.
66. I.I. Ibragimov, "Borba s nezakonnym oborotom narkoticheskikh sredstv-Delo vsego rossiiskogo obschestva" (Combating the Illicit Trafficking of Drugs Is a Matter for the Whole Russian Society), Pravo i obrazovanie 2 (2007): 175.
67. R. A. Aleksandrov, "Vzaimosviaz narkobiznesa i natsionalnoi bezopasnosti Rossii" (Connection Between Drug Business and Russia's National Security), Rossiiskii sledovatel 2 (2006): 55;
68. E.A. Stepanova, "Narkotiki i terrorizm" (Drugs and Terrorism), Mirovaia ekonomika i mezhdunarodnye otnosheniia 8 (2006).
69. See Federal Law No. 162-FZ "On Additions and Amendments to the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation," December 8, 2003; "S 12 Marta kazhdyi potrebitel narkotikov v Rossii mozhet byt avtomaticheski priravnen k narkobaronu" (Commencing March 12 Every Russian User Can Be Automatically Equated with a Drug Trafficker), March 3, 2004, www.regnum.ru. §228, no. 2;
70. A.I. Chuchaev, Postateinyi kommentarii k ugolovnomu kodeksu Rossiiskoi Federatsii (Section by Section Commentary to the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation) (Moscow, 2004), pp. 512, 516; users would be liable for up to three years deprivation of liberty for possession of a "large" quantity of narcotics and from three to ten years deprivation of liberty for possession of an "especially large" quantity of narcotics; see §§228 (1) and (2); "Komissiia po pravam Cheloveka pri prezidente RF obratilas k premeru s prosboi podderzhat priniatie realnykh razmerov razovykh doz narkotikov" (Presidential Human Rights Commission Asked the Prime Minister to Support the Enactment of Realistic Measurements of Single Use Doses of Drugs), March 11, 2004, www.regnum.ru.
71. "Komissiia po pravam Cheloveka pri prezidente RF obratilas k premeru s prosboi podderzhat priniatie realnykh razmerov razovykh doz narkotikov."
72. "S 12 Marta kazhdyi potrebitel narkotikov v Rossii mozhet byt avtomaticheski priravnen k narkobaronu."
73. "Grazhdanskii kontrol: Gosnarkokontrol na 'trope voiny'?" (FSKN Is on the "War Path"?), Prava cheloveka v Rossii (October 16, 2007).
74. Olga Bobrova, "Deputaty nervno kuriat" (Deputies Are Nervously Smoking), Novaya gazeta (September 15, 2005); "Krupnyi i osobo krupnyi razmer narkoticheskikh i psikhotropnykh veschestv budut ischisliat v fiziologicheski obosnovannykh razovykh dozakh" (Large and Especially Large Amounts of Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Will Be Calculated Taking Account of Physiologically Reasonable Single Use Doses), Regnum News Agency, May 12, 2004, www.regnum.ru.
75. Postanovlenie Pravitelstva Rossiiskoi Federatsii N. 231, "Ob utverzhdenii razmerov srednikh razovykh doz narkoticheskikh sredstv i psikhotropnykh veschetsv dlia tselei statei 228, 228.1 and 229 UK RF" (Instruction of the Federal Government No. 231, "Confirmation of the Minimum Average Doses of Drugs and Psychotropic Substances for Sections 228, 228.1 and 229 of the Criminal Code),'May 12, 2004.
76. Cherkesov, "Glavnoi prichinoi usugubleniia narkoobstanovki stali vneshnie prichiny." It is not surprising that Cherkesov, in his public statements, spoke in favor of the amendments, because the policy of putting the emphasis on dealers instead of users came from Putin himself. Putin, in his 2005 State of the Union address, stated, "The problem of drugs cannot be solved by prohibition alone." quoted in "Ischeznet li iz ugolovnogo kodeksa poniatie srednei razovoi dozy narkotikov?" (Will the Criterion of Minimum Average Dose Disappear from the Criminal Code?), Regnum News Agency, April 28, 2005, www.regnum.ru.
77. I. Rezonov, "Organizatsiia i soderzhanie narkopritonov: Vyiavlenie i raskrytie" (Organization and Direction of Drug Dens: Investigation and Disclosure), Zakonnost 4 (2006): 27;
78. E.N. Pashkova, "Sistema mer preduprezhdeniia prestuplenii, sovershaemykh na pochve narkomanii. Mesto i rol v nei sredstv administrativno-pravovogo vozdeistviia" (The System of Measures Directed at Prevention of Drug Crimes. The Place and Role of Legal-Administrative Measures), Chelovek: Prestuplenie i nakazanie 2-3 (2006): 80-81.
79. Bobrova, "Deputaty nervno kuriat"; "Ischeznet li iz ugolovnogo kodeksa poniatie srednei razovoi dozy narkotikov?"
80. "Postanovlenie pravitelstva RF o srednikh razovykh dozakh narkoticheskikh sredstv protolknulo lobbi prestupnogo mira" (The Instruction of the Federal Government Dealing with the Amounts of Minimum Average Doses of Drugs Was Sponsored by the Criminal Lobby), Federal Agency of the Press and Mass Communications, November 17, 2004, www.narkotiki.ru; Vyacheslav N. Kurchenko, "Novatsii v sudebnoi praktike po delam o nezakonnom oborote narkotikov" (Innovations in Court Practice Dealing with Drug Trafficking Cases), Ugoiovnyi protsess 10 (2006): 3.
81. Postanovlenie Pravitelstva N. 76 (Governmental Instruction No. 76), February 7, 2006.
82. "Gosduma gotova otkazatsia ot poniatiia 'srednikh razovykh doz' narkotikov" (State Duma Is Ready to Abandon Minimum Average Doses), Regnum News Agency, September 21, 2005, www.regnum.ru.
83. I.M. Kleimenov and D.U. Artemov, "Strategii protivodeistviia nezakonnomu oborotu narkotikov" (Strategies Aimed at Combating Illicit Drug Traffic), Rossiiskaia ustitsia 2 (2007): 63.
84. Yevgenii I. Tsymbala, "Pravovoe regulirovanie okazaniia narkologicheskoi pomoskhi: Problemy i puti ikh resheniia" (Legal Regulation of Provision of Aid to Drug Dependent Individuals. Problems and Their Resolutions), Federal Agency of the Press and Mass Communications, December 23, 2005, www.narkotiki.ru.
85. Federalnaia tselevaia programma "Kompleksnye mery protivodeistviia zloupotrebleniu narkotikami i ikh nezakonnomu oborotu na 2005-2009 gody" (Federal Program Titled "Comprehensive Measures to Combat Illicit Drug Use and Drug Traffic for 2005-2009"), Postanovlenie N. 561 (Instruction No. 561), September 13, 2005, www.narkotiki.ru/jrussia-5991.html.
86. See Perechen meropriiatii po realizatsii federalnoi tselevoi programmy "Kompleksnye mery protivodeistviia zloupotrebleniu narkotikami i ikh nezakonnomu oborotu na 2005-2009 gody" (List of Events Directed at the Realization of the Federal Program Titled "Comprehensive Measures to Combat Illicit Drug Use and Drug Traffic for 2005-2009"), www.narkotiki. ru/tabs/fcp2005pril2.html.
87. Even these non-law-enforcement bodies frequently display support for the law-enforcement approach. For example, in a 2005 interview, the minister of education and science expressed his support for some forms of mandatory drug testing for students; see "Internet press-konferentsiia ministra obrazovaniia i nauki R.F. Fursenko" (Internet Press Conference of Minister of Education and Science R.F. Fursenko), September 26, 2005, www.mon.gov.ru/press/news/1680; see also Perechen meropriiatii po realizatsii federalnoi tselevoi programmy "Kompleksnye mery protivodeistviia zloupotrebleniu narkotikami i ikh nezakonnomu oborotu na 2005-2009 gody."
88. Ibid.
89. Federalnaia tselevaia programma "Kompleksnye mery protivodeistviia zloupotrebleniu narkotikami i ikh nezakonnomu oborotu na 2005-2009 gody"; L.V. Gotchina, "Organizatsiia antinarkoticheskoi raboty v otsenkakh spetsialistov silovykh struktur (Nekotorye aspekty)" (Organization of Anti-Drug Work as Seen by Law Enforcement Specialists [Selected Aspects]), Pravo i obrazovanie 3 (2006): 150-51.
90. Raspredelenie assignovanii po gosudarstvennym zakazchikam federalnoi tselevoi programmy "Kompleksnye mery protivodeistviia zloupotrebleniu narkotikami i ikh nezakonnomu oborotu na 2005-2009 gody" (Division of Responsibilities Between Governmental Entities in Connection with the Federal Program Titled "Comprehensive Measures to Combat Illicit Drug Use and Drag Traffic for 2005-2009"), www.narkotiki.ru/tabs/fcp2005pril4.html.
91. Kramer, "Drug Abuse in Russia," p. 13.
92. Elena Omelchenko," 'You Can Tell by the Way They Talk': Analysing the Language Young People in Russia Use to Talk About Drugs," Journal of Communist Studies and Transition Politics 22, no. 1 (2006): 59.
93. Ibid., pp. 55, 61.
94. Maskas, "Trafficking Drugs," p. 156.
95. V.I Starodubov and A.I. Tatarkin, eds., Vliianie narkomanii na sotsialno-ekonomicheskoe razvitie obschestva (Influence of Drug Addiction on the Socio-Economic Development of Society) (Moscow and Ekaterinburg, 2006), pp. 266-67.
96. Tom Parfitt, "Vladimir Mendelevich: Fighting for Drag Substitution Treatment," Lancet 368 (2006): 279.
97. Kramer, "Drag Abuse in Russia."
98. Maskas, "Trafficking Drugs," p. 155;
99. A. Zuev, "Protivodeistvie nezakonnomu oborotu narkotikov v Moskve" (Combating Illicit Traffic of Drugs in Moscow), Zakonnost 9 (2004): 43;
100. Vyacheslav N. Kurchenko, "Ogranichenie provokatsii ot deistvii pri presechenii prestuplenii" (Limiting Provocations in Actions Directed at Crime Suppression), Zakonnost 1 (2004): 12.
101. Zuev, "Protivodeistvie nezakonnomu oborotu narkotikov v Moskve," p. 43; N.A. Sartaeva, "Narkotism: Sotsialno-Pravovoi aspekt" (Narcotization: Socio-Legal Aspects), Gosudarstvo i pravo 2 (2003): 121.
102. Maskas, "Trafficking Drugs," p. 176; Kurchenko, "Ogranichenie provokatsii ot deistvii pri presechenii prestuplenii," p. 10. For example, drugenforcement officers will have user A contact user B and ask for help in obtaining drugs. User A pays user B with money provided by the officers. When user B gives user A the drugs, user B is arrested and charged with trafficking. See Mikhail A. Fomin, "Provokatsiia sbyta narkoticheskikh sredstv, psikhotropnykh veschestv ili ikh analogov" (Provocation of Selling of Drugs, Psychotropic Substances and Their Derivatives), Ugolovnyi protsess 5 (2007): 55.
103. V. Manchinskii, "Obedinenie usilii v borbe s narkoprestupnostu" (Uniting of Forces in the Straggle Against Drug Crime), Zakonnost 5 (2006): 5;
104. A.G. Kharatishvilli, "Pravovye i kriminalisticheskie problemy vyiavleniia kontrabandy narkotikov" (Legal and Criminological Problems of Detecting Drug Smuggling), Chernye dyry v rossiiskom zakonodatehtve 3 (2006): 114.
105. H.I. Mussakaev, "Organizatsiia raboty prokuratury po nadzoru za ispolneniem zakonov Federalnoi Sluzhboi po Kontrolu za oborotom narkotikov" (Organizing the Work of the Prosecution in Supervising How the FSKN Complies with [Anti-Drug] Laws), Chernye dyry v rossiiskom zakonodatehtve 4 (2006): 371.
106. Kurchenko, "Novatsii v sudebnoi praktike po delam o nezakonnom oborote narkotikov," p. 6;
107. V. Manchinskii, "Obedinenie usilii v borbe s narkoprestupnostu" (Uniting of Forces in the Struggle Against Drug Crime), Zakonnost 5 (2006): 4.
108. Maskas, "Trafficking Drags," p. 163;
109. D.V. Ivanov, "Preduprezhdenie prestuplenii v sfere oborota narkotikov, soverchaemykh sotrudnikami organiv vnutrennikh del" (Preventing Drug Crimes Committed by Law Enforcers), Pravo i politika 6 (2004): 48.
110. Shelley, "Drug Trade in Contemporary Russia," 20.
111. E.M. Shcherbakova, "The Narcotics Invasion in Russia: What the Statistics Say," Sociological Research 44, no. 5 (2005): 54.
112. Shelley, "Drug Trade in Contemporary Russia," p. 20.
113. Shcherbakova, "Narcotics Invasion in Russia," p. 54;
114. Blaine Stothard, Olga Romanova, and Larissa Ivanova, "Recent Developments in HIV/AIDS Prevention for Russian Adolescents," Sex Education 7, no. 2 (2007): 175.
115. "The New Face of an Epidemic," Moscow Times (May 21, 2008). These are the official figures; the real number of people infected with HIV is probably much higher; see Paul Webster, "HIV/AIDS Explosion in Russia Triggers Research Boom," Lancet 361 (2003): 2132.
116. "New Face of an Epidemic."
117. Federalnaia tselevaia programma "Kompleksnye mery protivodeistviia zloupotrebleniu narkotikami i ikh nezakonnomu oborotu na 2005-2009 gody."
118. Stothard, Romanova, and Ivanova, "Recent Developments in HIV/AIDS Prevention," p. 179.
119. Shcherbakova, "Narcotics Invasion in Russia," pp. 55, 58.
120. Kramer, "Drug Abuse in Russia," p. 19.
121. Cornell and Swanstrom, "Eurasian Drug Trade," p. 10;
122. Alexandra Guaqueta, "Change and Continuity in U.S.-Colombian Relations and the War Against Drugs," Journal of Drug Issues 1 (2005): 42.
123. For example, the intensification of the war on drugs in the United States resulted in the "normalization of many surveillance technologies"; see David R. Bewley-Taylor, "U.S. Concept Wars, Civil Liberties and the Technologies of Fortification," Crime, Law, and Social Change 43 (2005): 84;
124. Kyle Grayson, "Discourse, Identity, and the U.S. 'War on Drugs'," in Critical Reflections on Transnational Organized Crime, Money Laundering, and Corruption, ed. M. E. Beare (Toronto: University of Toronto Press: 2003), pp. 145-48, 153.
125. Ibid., p. 145.
126. Julian Buchanan and Lee Young, "The War on Drugs-A War on Drug Users?" Drugs: Education, Prevention and Policy 7, no. 4 (2000): 410.
127. Eric D. Lock, Jeffrey M. Timberlake, and Kenneth A. Rasinski, "Battle Fatigue: Is Public Support Waning for 'War'-Centered Drag Control Strategies?" Crime and Delinquency 48, no. 3 (2002): 382.
128. Ibid., p. 416.
129. William N. Elwood, "Declaring War on the Home Front: Metaphor, Presidents, and the War on Drugs," Metaphor and Symbolic Activity 10, no. 2 (1995): 96-97.
130. Lawrence D. Bobo and Victor Thompson, "Unfair by Design: The War on Drugs, Race, and the Legitimacy of the Criminal Justice System," Social Research 73, no. 2 (2006): 447, 451;
131. R. Shenin and G. Suleimanova, "Narkobiznes-Globalnaia problemma XXI veka" (Drug Business-Global Problem of the Twenty-first Century), Mirovaia ekonomika i mezhdunarodnye otnosheniia 6 (2006): 55.
132. Elwood, "Declaring War on the Home Front," pp. 104, 107;
133. Buchanan and Young, "War on Drugs," p. 410.
134. Buchanan and Young, "War on Drugs," p. 411.
135. Lock, Timberlake, and Rasinski, "Battle Fatigue," p. 381;
136. Gotchina, "Organizatsiia antinarkoticheskoi raboty v otsenkakh spetsialistov silovykh struktur," p. 148;
137. Eva Bertram and Kenneth Sharpe, "War Ends, Drugs Win," Nation (January 6, 1997): 12.
138. Catherine Carstairs, "The Stages of the International Drug Control System" Drug and Alcohol Review 24 (2005): 62.
139. Cherkesov, "Glavnoi prichinoi usugubleniia narkoobstanovki stali vneshnie prichiny."
140. Quoted in Bertram and Sharpe, "War Ends, Drugs Win," p. 13.
141. Ibid.
142. George W. Bush to the AIDS Foundation of Chicago (fall 2000), www.dogwoodcenter.org/ban/10ban.html.
143. See ibid. The harm caused by licit substances such as alcohol and tobacco is frequently neglected in official pronouncements; see Buchanan and Young, "War on Drugs," p. 413.
144. Poznyak et al., "Illicit Drug Use and Its Health Consequences," p. 186;
145. Dan Baum, "The War on Drugs, 12 Years Later," American Bar Association Journal (March 1993): 71.
146. The text of the convention is available at www.ukcia.org/pollaw/ lawlibrary/conventionagainstillicittraffic1988.html; Cindy S.J. Fazey, "The Commission on Narcotic Drags and the United Nations International Drug Control Programme: Politics, Policies and Prospect for Change," International Journal of Drug Policy 14 (2003): 160.
147. The primary emphasis of the 1988 convention is on law-enforcement measures rather than treatment and rehabilitative measures; see M. Hasan, "Problemy mezhdunarodnogo sotrudnichestva po borbe s narkotikami" (Problems of International Cooperation in the Struggle Against Drugs), Pravo ipolitika 8 (2006): 135.
148. Fazey, "Commission on Narcotic Drugs and the United Nations International Drug Control Programme," p. 161.
149. C.W. Maris, "The Disasters of War: American Repression Versus Dutch Tolerance in Drug Policy," Journal of Drug Issues 29, no. 3 (1999): 498.
150. Nicholas Dora, "UK Policing Drug Traffickers and Users: Policy Implementation in the Context of National Law, European Traditions, International Drug Conventions, and Security After 2001," Journal of Drug Issues 3 (2004): 533.
151. Gotchina, "Organizatsiia antinarkoticheskoi raboty v otsenkakh spetsialistov silovykh struktur," p. 148.
152. Kramer, "Drug Abuse in Russia," p. 24.
153. Elwood. "Declaring War on the Home Front," p. 110.
154. Omelchenko, "'You Can Tell by the Way They Talk'," p. 61;
155. Kramer, "Drug Abuse in Russia," p. 16.
156. Zh.T. Seralinov and S.V. Bataev, "Problemy mezhdunarodno-pravovogo regulirovaniia borby s nezakonnym oborotom narkotikov" (Problems of International Legal Regulation of the Struggle Against Drug Trafficking), Politseiskoe Pravo 4 (2006): 93-98. Many other topics were subsumed into the U.S. drug policy in Colombia (e.g., institution building, justice sector reform). See Guaqueta, "Change and Continuity in U.S.-Colombian Relations," p. 36.
157. Elwood, "Declaring War on the Home Front," p. 101.