Analyzing the "nature" and "specific effectiveness" of clinical empathy: A theoretical overview and contribution towards a theory-based research agenda

Patient Education and Counseling

Volumn 74, Issue 3, 2009, Pages 339-346

  Neumann, Melanie ^a   Bensing, Jozien ^b   Mercer, Stewart ^c   Ernstmann, Nicole ^a   Ommen, Oliver ^a   Pfaff, Holger ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF COLOGNE   (Germany)

^b UTRECHT UNIVERSITY   (Netherlands)

^c UNIVERSITY OF GLASGOW   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Clinical empathy; Clinician patient relationship; Communication; Effectiveness; Empathy; Evidence based medicine; Health outcomes; Models; Patient centered medicine; Theories

Indexed keywords

AFFECT; ATTITUDE OF HEALTH PERSONNEL; CLINICAL COMPETENCE; COGNITION; COMMUNICATION; EMPATHY; EVIDENCE-BASED PRACTICE; HEALTH KNOWLEDGE, ATTITUDES, PRACTICE; HUMANS; MODELS, EDUCATIONAL; MODELS, PSYCHOLOGICAL; MODELS, THEORETICAL; NEUROPHYSIOLOGY; PATIENT CARE TEAM; PROFESSIONAL ROLE; PROFESSIONAL-PATIENT RELATIONS; QUALITY OF HEALTH CARE; RESEARCH; RESEARCH DESIGN; SOCIAL SUPPORT;

EID: 60049089054     PISSN: 07383991     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.pec.2008.11.013     Document Type: Article

References (129)

1. Adler H.M. The sociophysiology of caring in the doctor-patient relationship. J Gen Intern Med 17 (2002) 883-890
2. Hojat M. Empathy in patient care. Antecedents, development, measurement and outcomes (2007), Springer, Berlin
3. Dixon D.M., Sweeney K.G., and Gray D.J.P.P. The physician healer: ancient magic or modern science?. Br J Gen Pract 49 (1999) 309-312
4. Usherwood T. Understanding the consultation: evidence, theory, and practice (1999), Oxford University Press, Oxford
5. Rees-Lewis J.C. Patients' views on quality of care in general practice: literature review. Soc Sci Med 39 (1994) 655-671
6. Herzig S., Biehl L., Stelberg H., Hick C., Schmeißer N., and Koerfer A. What makes a good doctor? A content analysis of assessments by a sample of doctors. Dtsch Med Wochenschr 131 (2006) 2883-2888
7. Bylund C.L., and Makoul G. Empathic communication and gender in the physician-patient encounter. Patient Educ Couns 48 (2002) 207-216
8. Spiro H. What is empathy and can it be taught?. Ann Intern Med 15 (1992) 843-846
9. Spiro H., McCrea Curnen M., Peschel E., and St. James D. Empathy and the practice of medicine: beyond pills and the scalpel (1993), Yale University Press, New Haven
10. Squier R.W. A model of empathic understanding and adherence to treatment regimens in practitioner-patient relationships. Soc Sci Med 30 (1990) 325-329
11. Ong L.M.L., Visser M.R.M., Lammes F.B., and de Haes J.C.J.M. Doctor-patient communication and cancer patients' quality of life. Patient Educ Couns 41 (2000) 145-156
12. Beckman H., and Frankel R. The effect of physician behavior on the collection of data. Ann Intern Med 101 (1984) 692-696
13. Marvel M.K., Epstein R.M., Flowers K., and Beckham H.B. Soliciting the patient's agenda: have we improved?. J Amer Med Assoc 281 (1999) 283-287
14. Roter D.L., Stewart M., Putnam S., Lipkin M.J., Stiles W., and Inui T. Communication patterns of primary care physicians. J Amer Med Assoc 277 (1997) 350-356
15. White J., Levinson W., and Roter D. "Oh by the way": the closing moments of the medical visit. J Gen Intern Med 9 (1994) 24-28
16. Nightingale S.D., Yarnold P.R., and Greenberg M.S. Sympathy, empathy, and physician responses in primary care and surgical settings. J Gen Intern Med 6 (1991) 420-423
17. More E. "Empathy" enters the profession of medicine. In: More E.S., and Milligan M.A. (Eds). The empathic practitioner: empathy, gender, and medicine (1994), Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick 19-40
18. Levinson W., Stiles W., Inui T., and Engle R. Physician frustration in communicating with patients. Med Care 31 (1993) 285-295
19. Levinson W., Gorawa-Bhat R., and Lamb J. A study of patient cues and physician responses in primary care and surgical settings. J Amer Med Assoc 284 (2000) 1021-1027
20. Zachariae R., Pedersen C., Jensen A., Ehrnrooth E., Rossen P., and von der Maase H. Association of perceived physician communication style with patient satisfaction, distress, cancer-related self-efficacy, and perceived control over disease. Br J Cancer 88 (2003) 658-665
21. Bensing J., van Dulmen S., and Tates K. Communication in context: new directions in communication research. Patient Educ Couns 50 (2003) 27-32
22. Bensing J. Bridging the gap: the separate worlds of evidence-based medicine and patient-centered medicine. Patient Educ Couns 39 (2000) 17-25
23. Balint M. Der Arzt, sein Patient und die Krankheit (The physician, his patient, and the disease. 10. Auflage). Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta; 2001.
24. Vischer R. Über das optische Formgefühl. Ein Beitrag zur Ästhetik (About the optical form of feeling. A contribution to the aesthetics). Leipzig: Credner; 1873.
25. Lipps T. Psychological studies (1926), Williams and Wilkens, Baltimore
26. Lipps T. Zur Einfühlung (To the "feeling into"). Leipzig: W. Engelmann; 1913.
27. Tichener E.B. A beginner's psychology (1915), Macmillan, New York
28. Batson C.D., Coke J.S., and Empathy:. A source of altruistic motivation for helping?. In: Rushton J.P., and Sorrentino R.M. (Eds). Altruism and helping behavior: Social, personality, and developmental perspectives (1981), Erlbaum, Hillsdale 167-211
29. Feshbach N.D. Studies of empathic behavior in children. In: Maher B.A. (Ed). Progress in experimental personality research (1978), Academic Press, New York 1-47
30. Hoffmann M.L. Developmental synthesis of affect and cognition and its implications for altruitsic motivation. Dev Psychol 11 (1975) 607-622
31. Hoffmann M.L. Development of prosocial motivation, empathy and guilt. In: Eisenberg N. (Ed). The development of prosocial behavior (1982), Academic Press, New York 281-338
32. Hoffmann M.L. Interaction of affect and cognition in empathy. In: Izard C.E., Kagan J., and Zajonc R.B. (Eds). Emotions, cognitions and behavior (1984), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 103-132
33. Eisenberg N. Altruistic emotion, cognition and behavior (1986), Erlbaum, Hillsdale
34. Eisenberg N., and Fabes R.A. Prosocial behavior and empathy. In: Clark M.S. (Ed). Prosocial behavior (1991), Sage, Newbury Park 34-61
35. Stotland E. Exploratory investigations in empathy. In: Berkowirtz L. (Ed). Advances in experimental social psychology (1969), Academic Press, New York 271-314
36. Friedlmeier W. Entwicklung von Empathie, Selbstkonzept und prosozialem Handeln in der Kindheit (Development of empathy, self-concept and prosocial action in childhood) (1993), Hartung-Gorre, Konstanz
37. Bischof-Köhler D. Entwicklungspsychologische Ansätze (Approaches in developmental psychology). In: Otto J.H., Euler H.A., and Mandl H. (Eds). Emotionspsychologie. Ein Handbuch (Psychology of emotions. A manual) (2000), Psychologische Verlags Union, Weinheim 165-176
38. Rogers C. On becoming a person. A therapist's view of psychotherapy (1961), Mifflin, Boston
39. Bischoff-Wanner C. Empathie in der Pflege (Empathy in nursing) (2002), Hans Huber, Bern
40. Barnett M.A. Similarity of experience and empathy in prescholars. J Genet Psychol 145 (1984) 241-250
41. Barnett M.A., Tetreault P.A., Esper J.A., and Bristow A.R. Similarity and empathy: the experience of rape. J Soc Psychol 126 (1986) 47-49
42. Barnett M.A., Tetreault P.A., and Masbad I. Empathy with a rape victim: the role of similarity of experience. Violence and Vict 2 (1987) 255-262
43. Batson C.D., Sympson S.C., Hindman J.L., Decruz P., Todd R.M., Weeks J.L., et al. I've been there too: effect on empathy of prior experience with a need. Pers Soc Psychol Bull 22 (1996) 474-482
44. Krebs D.L. Empathy and altruism. J Pers Soc Psychol 32 (1975) 1134-1146
45. Kubo Y., and Muto T. The effect of recalling one's own similar experiences on empathic understanding of the feeling of another person. Jap J Educ Psychol 32 (1984) 296-305
46. Gruen R.J., and Mendelsohn G. Emotional responses to affective displays in others: The distinction between empathy and sympathy. J Pers Soc Psychol 51 (1986) 609-614
47. Decety J., and Jackson P. A social-neurosience perspective on empathy. Curr Dir Psychol Sci 15 (2006) 54-58
48. Kohut H. Selected problems in self-psychological theory. In: Ornstein P.H. (Ed). The search for the self (1980), International University Press, New York 489-523
49. Batson C.D. The altruism question: toward a social-psychological answer (1991), Lawrence Erlbaum Ass, Hillsdale, New Jersey
50. Toi M., and Batson C.D. More evidence that empathy is a source of altruistic motivation. J Pers Soc Psychol 43 (1982) 281-292
51. Hojat M., Gonnella J.S., Mangione S., Nasca T.J., and Magee M. Physician empathy in medical education and practice: experience with the Jefferson scale of physician empathy. Semin Integr Med 1 (2003) 25-41
52. Landau R.L. Selective empathy. In: Spiro H., McCrea Curnen M., Peschel E., and St. James D. (Eds). Empathy and the practice of medicine. Beyond pills and the scalpel (1993), Yale University Press, New Haven 110-121
53. Kohler W. Gestalt psychology (1929), Liveright, Oxford
54. Mead G.H. Mind, self, and society (1934), University of Chicago Press, Chicago
55. Piaget J. The moral judgment of the child (1932), Kegan, Paul, Trench, Trubner, London
56. Aderman D., and Berkowitz L. Self-concern and the unwillingness to be helpful. Soc Psychol Q 46 (1983) 293-301
57. Berkowitz L. The self, selfishness, and altruism. In: Macaulay J., and Berkowitz L. (Eds). Altruism and helping. Behavior-social psychological studies of some antecedents and consequences (1970), Academic Press, New York 143-154
58. Wallbott H.G. Empathie (Empathy). In: Otto J.H., Euler H.A., and Mandl H. (Eds). Emotionspsychologie. Ein Handbuch (Psychology of emotions. A manual) (2000), Psychologische Verlags Union, Weinheim 370-380
59. Argyle M. Soziale Interaktion (Social interaction) (1972), Kiepenheuer & Witsch, Köln
60. Singleton W.T., Spurgeon P., and Stammers R.B. The analysis of social skill: proceedings (1980), Plenum Press, New York
61. Trower P., Bryant B., and Argyle M. Social skills and mental health (1986), Methuen, London
62. Young B., and Salmon P. Core assumptions and research opportunities in clinical communication. Patient Educ Couns 58 (2005) 225-234
63. Greenspan S.I., and Gransfield J.M. Reconsidering the construct of mental retardation: implications of a model of social competence. Am J Ment Retard 96 (1992) 442-553
64. Scala K. Soziales Kompetenztraining-Indoor- und Outdoortraining in erlebnisreicher Kombination zwischen Natur und Beziehung (Social competence training-Indoor- and outdoor-training in exiting combination between nature and relationship). 2001; www.horsetrekking-and-more.de/Soziale_kompetenz/body_soziale_kompetenz_. html: download 6/2005.
65. Bastians F, Kluge S. Diagnose sozialer Kompetenzen. Entwicklung eines multimedialen Diagnosesystems zur Erfassung sozialer Kompetenzen (Diagnosis of social competences. Development of a multimedia diagnostics system for the assessment of social competences). 2000; www.psycho.uni-osnabrueck.de/runde/dsp/sk.htm: download 10/2005.
66. Salovey P., and Mayer J.D. Emotional intelligence. Imagination, cognition, and personality 9 (1990) 185-211
67. Goleman D. Emotional intelligence: why it can matter more than LQ (1995), Bantam Books, New York
68. Schutte N.S., Malouff J.M., Bobik C., Coston T.D., Greeson C., Jedulicka C., et al. Emotional intelligence and interpersonal relations. J Soc Psychol 141 (2001) 523-536
69. Preston S.D., and de Waal F. Empathy: its ultimate and proximate bases. Behav Brain Sci 25 (2002) 1-72
70. Christenfeld N., and Gerin W. Social support and cardiovascular reactivity. Biomed Pharmacother 54 (2000) 251-257
71. Glynn L.M., Christenfeld N., and Gerin W. Gender, social support, and cardiovascular response to stress. Psychosom Med 61 (1999) 234-242
72. Henderson J.T., and Weisman C.S. Physician gender effects on preventing screening and counseling: an analysis of male and female patients' health care experiences. Med Care 39 (2001) 1281-1292
73. Bertakis K.D., Helms L.J., Callahan E.J., Azari R., and Robbins J.A. The influence of gender on physician practice style. Med Care 33 (1995) 407-416
74. Roter D., Lipkin M., and Korsgaard A. Sex differences in patients' and physicians' communication during primary care medical visits. Med Care 29 (1991) 1083-1093
75. Roter D., Hall J., and Aoki Y. Physician gender effects in medical communication. J Amer Med Assoc 288 (2002) 756-764
76. Schmid-Mast M., Hall J.A., and Roter D.L. Disentangling physician sex and physician communication style: their effects on patient satisfaction in a virtual medical visit. Patient Educ Couns 68 (2007) 16-22
77. Hojat M., Gonnellla J., Nasca T., Mangione S., Vergare M., and Magee M. Physician empathy: definition, components, measurement, and relationship to gender and specialty. Am J Psychiatry 159 (2002) 1563-1569
78. Hojat M., Gonnella J.S., Mangione S., Nasca T.J., Veloski J.J., Erdman J.B., et al. Empathy in medical students as related to academic performance, clinical competence, and gender. Med Educ 36 (2002) 522-527
79. Gallese V. The roots of empathy: the shared manifold hypothesis and the neural basis of intersubjectivity. Psychopathology 36 (2003) 171-180
80. Bauer J. Warum ich fühle, was Du fühlst. Intuitive Kommunikation und das Geheimnis der Spiegelneurone (Why I feel what you feel. Intuitive communication and the mystery of the mirror neurons) (2005), Hoffmann und Campe, Hamburg
81. Decety J., and Jackson P.L. The functional architecture of human empathy. Behav Cogn Neurosci Rev 3 (2004) 71-100
82. Wicker B., Keysers C., Plailly J., Royet J.P., Gallese V., and Rizzolatti G. Both of us are disgusted in my insula: the common neural basis of seeing and seeking disgust. Neuron 40 (2003) 644-655
83. Bowlby J. A secure base: parent-child attachment and healthy human development (1988), Basic Books, New York
84. Ainsworth M.D.S. Patterns of infant-mother attachment: antecedents and effects on development. Bull N Y Acad Med 61 (1985) 771-791
85. Neumann M., Wirtz M., Bollschweiler E., Mercer S., Warm M., Wolf J., et al. Determinants and patient-reported long-term outcomes of physician empathy in oncology: a structural equation modelling approach. Patient Educ Couns 69 (2007) 63-75
86. Mercer S.W., and Reynolds W.J. Empathy and quality of care. Br J Gen Pract 52 (2002) S9-13
87. Maguire P., Faulkner A., Booth K., Elliot C., and Hiller V. Helping cancer patients disclose their concerns. Eur J Cancer Care 32A (1996) 78-81
88. Coulehan J., Platt F., Egner B., Frankel R., Lin C., Lown B., et al. "Let me see if I have this right": words that build empathy. Ann Intern Med 135 (2001) 221-227
89. Beckman H.B., and Frankel R.M. Training practitioners to communicate effectively in cancer care: it is the relationship that counts. Patient Educ Couns 50 (2003) 85-89
90. Neumann M., Wirtz M., Bollschweiler E., Warm M., Wolf J., and Pfaff H. Psychometrische evaluation der deutschen Version des Messinstruments "Consultation and Relational Empathy" (CARE) am Beispiel von Krebspatienten (Psychometric evaluation of the German version of the "Consultation and Relational Empathy" (CARE) Measure at the example of cancer patients). Psychother Psychosom Med Psychol 58 (2008) 5-15
91. Greenberg L., Watson J., Elliott R., and Bohart A. Empathy. Psychotherapy 38 (2001) 380-384
92. Watzlawick P., Beavin J.H., and Jackson D.D. Menschliche Kommunikation. Formen, Störungen, Paradoxien (Human communication. Forms, disorders, paradoxies) (2002), Hans Huber, Bern
93. Bakker D.A., Fitch M.I., Gray R., Reed E., and Bennett J. Patient-health care provider communication during chemotherapy treatment: the perspectives of women with breast cancer. Patient Educ Couns 43 (2001) 61-71
94. Finset A., Smedstad L.M., and Ogar B. Physician-patient interaction and coping with cancer: the doctor as informer or supporter?. J Cancer Educ 12 (1997) 174-178
95. Halpern J. From detached concern to empathy. Humanizing medical practice (2001), Oxford University Press, Oxford
96. Suchman A., Markakis K., Beckman H., and Frankel R. A model of empathic communication in the medical interview. J Amer Med Assoc 277 (1997) 678-682
97. Stepien K.A., and Baernstein A. Educating for empathy. J Gen Intern Med 21 (2006) 524-530
98. Larson E.B., and Yao Y. Clinical empathy as emotional labor in the patient-physician relationship. J Amer Med Assoc 293 (2005) 1100-1106
99. Borrell-Carrio F., Suchman A., and Epstein R.M. The biopsychosocial model 25 years later: principles, practice, and scientific inquiry. Ann Fam Med 2 (2004) 576-582
100. Ross A. Childhood sexual abuse and psychosomatic symptoms in irritable bowel syndrome. J Child Sex Abus 14 (2005) 27-38
101. Handa M., Nukina H., Ando K., and Kubo C. What does pain or discomfort in irritable bowel syndrome mean?. Dig Dis Sci 49 (2004) 575-578
102. Graugaard P.K., Holgersen K., and Finset A. Communicating with alexithymic and non-alexithymic patients: an experimental study of psychosocial communication and empathy on patient satisfaction. Psychother Psychosom 73 (2004) 92-100
103. Przuntek H., Muller T., and Riederer P. Diagnostic staging of Parkinson's disease: conceptual aspects. J Neural Transm 111 (2004) 201-216
104. Matthews D.A., Suchman A.L., and Branch W.T. Making "connexions": enhancing the therapeutic potential of patient-clinician relationships. Ann Intern Med 118 (1993) 973-977
105. Irving P., and Dickson D. Empathy: towards a conceptual framework for health professionals. Int J Health Care Qual Assur 17 (2004) 212-220
106. Kim S.S., Kaplowitz S., and Johnston M.V. The effects of physician empathy on patient satisfaction and compliance. Eval Health Prof 27 (2004) 237-251
107. Price S., Mercer S.W., and MacPherson H. Practitioner empathy, patient enablement and health outcomes: a prospective study of acupuncture patients. Patient Educ Couns 63 (2006) 239-245
108. Engel G. Wie lange noch muss sich die Wissenschaft der Medizin auf eine Weltanschauung aus dem 17. Jahrhundert stützen?/How long must the science of medicine be based on a philosophy of life from the 17th century?. In: Uexküll von T. (Ed). Psychosomatische Medizin (Psychosomatic medicine) (1996), Urban & Schwarzenberg, München 3-11
109. Maslow A.H. Motivation und Persönlichkeit (Motivation and personality) (2002), Rowohlt, Hamburg
110. Bertakis K.D., Roter D., and Putnam S.M. The relationship of physician medical interview style to patient satisfaction. J Fam Prac 1991 (1991) 175-181
111. Adler H.M. Toward a biopsychosocial understanding of the patient-physician relationship: an emerging dialogue. J Gen Intern Med 22 (2007) 280-285
112. Norfolk T., Birdi K., and Walsh D. The role of empathy in establishing rapport in the consultation: a new model. Med Educ 41 (2007) 690-697
113. Thorne S.E., Bultz B.D., and Baile W. Is there a cost to poor communication in cancer care? A critical review of the literature. Psycho-oncology 14 (2005) 875-884
114. Newton B., Barber L., Clardy J., Cleveland E., and O' Sullivan P. Is there hardening of the heart during medical school?. Acad Med 83 (2008) 244-249
115. Shanafelt T.D., Bradley K.A., Wipf J.E., and Back A.L. Burnout and self-reported patient care in an internal medicine residency program. Ann Intern Med 136 (2002) 358-367
116. Bellini L.M., Baime M., and Shea J.A. Variation of mood and empathy during internship. J Amer Med Assoc 287 (2002) 3143-3146
117. Firth-Cozens J. Emotional distress in junior house officers. Brit Med J 295 (1987) 533-536
118. Rosen I.M., Gimotty P.A., Shea J.A., and Bellini L.M. Evolution of sleep quantity, sleep deprivation, mood disturbances, empathy, and burnout among interns. Acad Med 81 (2006) 82-85
119. Novack D.H., Suchman A.L., Clark W., and Epstein R. Calibrating the physician. Personal awareness and effective patient care. J Amer Med Assoc 13 (1997) 502-509
120. Epstein R.M. Mindfulness practice. J Amer Med Assoc 1999 (1999) 833-839
121. Eisenberg N. Empathy and related emotional responses (1989), Jossey Bass, San Francisco
122. Brock C., and Salinsky J.V. Empathy: an essential skill for understanding the physician-patient relationship in clinical practice. Fam Med 25 (1993) 245-248
123. Darley J.M., and Batson C.D. From Jerusalem to Jericho-a study of situational and dispositional variables in helping behavior. J Pers Soc Psychol 27 (1973) 100-108
124. Safran D.G., Miller W., and Beckman H. Organizational dimensions of relationship-centered care. J Gen Intern Med 21 (2005) S9-S15
125. West C.P., and Shanafelt T.D. The influence of personal and environmental factors on professionalism in medical education. BMC Med Educ 7 (2007) 1-9
126. Rogers C.R. Client-centred therapy (1951), Houghton Mifflin, Boston
127. Freud S. Massenpsychologie und Ich-Analyse (Psychology of the masses and self-analysis) (1923), Internationaler Psychoanalytischer Verlag, Leipzig
128. Coulehan J.L., and Block M.R. The medical interview: mastering skills for clinical practice. 5th edition (2006), F.A. Davis, Philadelphia
129. Hemmerdinger J.M., Stoddart S., and Lilford R. A systematic review of tests of empathy in medicine. BMC Med Educ 7 (2007) 1-8