The first ambassadors: Cuba's contribution to Guinea-Bissau's war of independence

Journal of Latin American Studies

Volumn 29, Issue 1, 1997, Pages 45-88

  Gleijeses, Piero ^a  

^a JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY   (United States)

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EID: 5844237558     PISSN: 0022216X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0022216X96004646     Document Type: Article

References (266)

1. I went to Cuba six times between November 1993 and July 1996 for a total of six months to research Cuban policy towards Africa from the early 19605 to 1978. I interviewed sixty-three Cuban protagonists, and I had access to the archives of the Central Committee (hereafter ACC), the Institute de Historia de Cuba, the Centra de Information de la Defensa de las Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias (hereafter CID-FAR), and the Ministerio para la Inversion Extranjera y la Colaboración Económica, and to documents from private collections. I have photocopies of all Cuban documents cited in this essay.
2. Nõ Pintcha (Bissau), 2 Apr. 1986, p. 7. To avoid confusion, throughout this essay I use 'Guinean' to refer only to natives of Guinea-Bissau, not Guinée.
3. 3 Mar. 1970, FOIA 1982/1049; 'Portuguese Guinea: Guidelines for Policy', enclosed in Irwin to Amembassy Lisbon, 2 Oct. 1970, FOIA 1982/1879.
4. The best studies on the war of independence in Guinea-Bissau are Lars Rudebeck, Guinea-Bissau: A Study of Political Mobilization (Uppsala, 1974); Patrick Chabal, Amilcar Cabrai: Revolutionary Leadership and People's War (Cambridge, 1983); Mustafah Dhada, Warriors at Work: How Guinea Was Really Set Free (Niwot, Colo., 1993). Of the many accounts by journalists, the most important are Basil Davidson, No Fist Is Big Enough to Hide the Sky: The Liberation of Guinea and Cape Verde (London, 1981); Romano Ledda, Una rivoluZione africana (Bari, 1970); Gérard Chaliand, Lutte armée en Afrique (Paris, 1967) and Al J. Venter, Portugal's Guerrilla War: The Campaign for Africa (Cape Town, 1973). The first three are sympathetic to the rebels, the last to the Portuguese.
5. The best studies on the war of independence in Guinea-Bissau are Lars Rudebeck, Guinea-Bissau: A Study of Political Mobilization (Uppsala, 1974); Patrick Chabal, Amilcar Cabrai: Revolutionary Leadership and People's War (Cambridge, 1983); Mustafah Dhada, Warriors at Work: How Guinea Was Really Set Free (Niwot, Colo., 1993). Of the many accounts by journalists, the most important are Basil Davidson, No Fist Is Big Enough to Hide the Sky: The Liberation of Guinea and Cape Verde (London, 1981); Romano Ledda, Una rivoluZione africana (Bari, 1970); Gérard Chaliand, Lutte armée en Afrique (Paris, 1967) and Al J. Venter, Portugal's Guerrilla War: The Campaign for Africa (Cape Town, 1973). The first three are sympathetic to the rebels, the last to the Portuguese.
6. The best studies on the war of independence in Guinea-Bissau are Lars Rudebeck, Guinea-Bissau: A Study of Political Mobilization (Uppsala, 1974); Patrick Chabal, Amilcar Cabrai: Revolutionary Leadership and People's War (Cambridge, 1983); Mustafah Dhada, Warriors at Work: How Guinea Was Really Set Free (Niwot, Colo., 1993). Of the many accounts by journalists, the most important are Basil Davidson, No Fist Is Big Enough to Hide the Sky: The Liberation of Guinea and Cape Verde (London, 1981); Romano Ledda, Una rivoluZione africana (Bari, 1970); Gérard Chaliand, Lutte armée en Afrique (Paris, 1967) and Al J. Venter, Portugal's Guerrilla War: The Campaign for Africa (Cape Town, 1973). The first three are sympathetic to the rebels, the last to the Portuguese.
7. The best studies on the war of independence in Guinea-Bissau are Lars Rudebeck, Guinea-Bissau: A Study of Political Mobilization (Uppsala, 1974); Patrick Chabal, Amilcar Cabrai: Revolutionary Leadership and People's War (Cambridge, 1983); Mustafah Dhada, Warriors at Work: How Guinea Was Really Set Free (Niwot, Colo., 1993). Of the many accounts by journalists, the most important are Basil Davidson, No Fist Is Big Enough to Hide the Sky: The Liberation of Guinea and Cape Verde (London, 1981); Romano Ledda, Una rivoluZione africana (Bari, 1970); Gérard Chaliand, Lutte armée en Afrique (Paris, 1967) and Al J. Venter, Portugal's Guerrilla War: The Campaign for Africa (Cape Town, 1973). The first three are sympathetic to the rebels, the last to the Portuguese.
8. The best studies on the war of independence in Guinea-Bissau are Lars Rudebeck, Guinea-Bissau: A Study of Political Mobilization (Uppsala, 1974); Patrick Chabal, Amilcar Cabrai: Revolutionary Leadership and People's War (Cambridge, 1983); Mustafah Dhada, Warriors at Work: How Guinea Was Really Set Free (Niwot, Colo., 1993). Of the many accounts by journalists, the most important are Basil Davidson, No Fist Is Big Enough to Hide the Sky: The Liberation of Guinea and Cape Verde (London, 1981); Romano Ledda, Una rivoluZione africana (Bari, 1970); Gérard Chaliand, Lutte armée en Afrique (Paris, 1967) and Al J. Venter, Portugal's Guerrilla War: The Campaign for Africa (Cape Town, 1973). The first three are sympathetic to the rebels, the last to the Portuguese.
9. The best studies on the war of independence in Guinea-Bissau are Lars Rudebeck, Guinea-Bissau: A Study of Political Mobilization (Uppsala, 1974); Patrick Chabal, Amilcar Cabrai: Revolutionary Leadership and People's War (Cambridge, 1983); Mustafah Dhada, Warriors at Work: How Guinea Was Really Set Free (Niwot, Colo., 1993). Of the many accounts by journalists, the most important are Basil Davidson, No Fist Is Big Enough to Hide the Sky: The Liberation of Guinea and Cape Verde (London, 1981); Romano Ledda, Una rivoluZione africana (Bari, 1970); Gérard Chaliand, Lutte armée en Afrique (Paris, 1967) and Al J. Venter, Portugal's Guerrilla War: The Campaign for Africa (Cape Town, 1973). The first three are sympathetic to the rebels, the last to the Portuguese.
10. The best studies on the war of independence in Guinea-Bissau are Lars Rudebeck, Guinea-Bissau: A Study of Political Mobilization (Uppsala, 1974); Patrick Chabal, Amilcar Cabrai: Revolutionary Leadership and People's War (Cambridge, 1983); Mustafah Dhada, Warriors at Work: How Guinea Was Really Set Free (Niwot, Colo., 1993). Of the many accounts by journalists, the most important are Basil Davidson, No Fist Is Big Enough to Hide the Sky: The Liberation of Guinea and Cape Verde (London, 1981); Romano Ledda, Una rivoluZione africana (Bari, 1970); Gérard Chaliand, Lutte armée en Afrique (Paris, 1967) and Al J. Venter, Portugal's Guerrilla War: The Campaign for Africa (Cape Town, 1973). The first three are sympathetic to the rebels, the last to the Portuguese.
11. Patrick Chabal, 'People's War, State Formation and Revolution in Africa', journal of Commonwealth and Comparative Politics (Nov. 1983), p. 112.
12. Armando Entralgo to Raúl Roa, 13 Dec. 1963, in 'Ayuda brindada por la República de Cuba al Partido Africano por la Independencia de Guinea y las Islas de Cabo Verde (PAIGC)', p. 5, CID-FAR (hereafter 'Ayuda brindada').
13. Chabal, Amilcar Cabral, p. 169. ' Although Cabral's thought was grounded in Marxism, it is clear that he was not beholden to any contemporary political or economic interpretation of the doctrine. He believed, rightly or wrongly, that Marx's legacy was his independent and critical approach to the analysis of the society in which he lived. He therefore felt free to develop his own analysis of Guinean society without concern for prevailing political theories.' (Ibid., p. 186). See also Ronald Chilcote, Amilcar Cabral' s Revolutionary Theory and Practice: A Critical Guide (Boulder, 1991), pp. 23-88 and Jock McCulloch, In the Twilight of Revolution: The Political Theory of Amilcar Cabral (London, 1983).
14. Chabal, Amilcar Cabral, p. 169. ' Although Cabral's thought was grounded in Marxism, it is clear that he was not beholden to any contemporary political or economic interpretation of the doctrine. He believed, rightly or wrongly, that Marx's legacy was his independent and critical approach to the analysis of the society in which he lived. He therefore felt free to develop his own analysis of Guinean society without concern for prevailing political theories.' (Ibid., p. 186). See also Ronald Chilcote, Amilcar Cabral' s Revolutionary Theory and Practice: A Critical Guide (Boulder, 1991), pp. 23-88 and Jock McCulloch, In the Twilight of Revolution: The Political Theory of Amilcar Cabral (London, 1983).
15. Chabal, Amilcar Cabral, p. 169. ' Although Cabral's thought was grounded in Marxism, it is clear that he was not beholden to any contemporary political or economic interpretation of the doctrine. He believed, rightly or wrongly, that Marx's legacy was his independent and critical approach to the analysis of the society in which he lived. He therefore felt free to develop his own analysis of Guinean society without concern for prevailing political theories.' (Ibid., p. 186). See also Ronald Chilcote, Amilcar Cabral' s Revolutionary Theory and Practice: A Critical Guide (Boulder, 1991), pp. 23-88 and Jock McCulloch, In the Twilight of Revolution: The Political Theory of Amilcar Cabral (London, 1983).
16. Chabal, Amilcar Cabral, p. 169. ' Although Cabral's thought was grounded in Marxism, it is clear that he was not beholden to any contemporary political or economic interpretation of the doctrine. He believed, rightly or wrongly, that Marx's legacy was his independent and critical approach to the analysis of the society in which he lived. He therefore felt free to develop his own analysis of Guinean society without concern for prevailing political theories.' (Ibid., p. 186). See also Ronald Chilcote, Amilcar Cabral' s Revolutionary Theory and Practice: A Critical Guide (Boulder, 1991), pp. 23-88 and Jock McCulloch, In the Twilight of Revolution: The Political Theory of Amilcar Cabral (London, 1983).
17. Interview with Ulises Estrada.
18. Chabal, Amilcar Cabral, p. 98.
19. 'Ayuda brindada', pp. 2-6. Quotations are from 22 Aug. 1963 cable by Chargé José Carballo and 13 Dec. 1963 cable by Ambassador Armando Entralgo.
20. Nõ Pintcha, 9, Oct. 1975, p. 5.
21. This account is based on documents in two folders labelled 'Operación Triángulo', ACC; interviews with Estrada, the intelligence officer who oversaw the operation, and Manuel Agramonte, Rafael Moracén and Osvaldo Fuente Veitía, three of the military instructors on the Uvero.
22. 'Entreprise nationale de transport routier, de transit et de consignation maritime', no. 009814, 14 May 1965, 'Operación Triángulo', ACC.
23. Luís Cabral, Crónica da Libertação (Lisbon, 1984), pp. 251-2 (quoted); interviews with Víctor Dreke, a Cuban officer who headed the special unit that was in charge of training, and with Manuel Monteiro Santos, one of the Cape Verdeans. Two of the Cape Verdeans wrote about their experiences in the local newspaper. See Agnelo Dantas, 'O primeiro juramento dos combatentes cabo-verdianos', Voz di Povo (Praia, Cape Verde), 16 Jan. 1988, p. 5 and Júlio de Carvalho, 'Nunca é desejável que a intervenção policial sea repressiva', Voz di Povo, 30 Jan. 1988, p. 6. See also '15 de Janeiro, um marco importante da nossa historia', Voz di Povo, 16 Jan. 1988, p. 11; Humberto Cardoso, O partido único em Cabo Verde (Praia, 1993), pp. 18-19.
24. Luís Cabral, Crónica da Libertação (Lisbon, 1984), pp. 251-2 (quoted); interviews with Víctor Dreke, a Cuban officer who headed the special unit that was in charge of training, and with Manuel Monteiro Santos, one of the Cape Verdeans. Two of the Cape Verdeans wrote about their experiences in the local newspaper. See Agnelo Dantas, 'O primeiro juramento dos combatentes cabo-verdianos', Voz di Povo (Praia, Cape Verde), 16 Jan. 1988, p. 5 and Júlio de Carvalho, 'Nunca é desejável que a intervenção policial sea repressiva', Voz di Povo, 30 Jan. 1988, p. 6. See also '15 de Janeiro, um marco importante da nossa historia', Voz di Povo, 16 Jan. 1988, p. 11; Humberto Cardoso, O partido único em Cabo Verde (Praia, 1993), pp. 18-19.
25. Luís Cabral, Crónica da Libertação (Lisbon, 1984), pp. 251-2 (quoted); interviews with Víctor Dreke, a Cuban officer who headed the special unit that was in charge of training, and with Manuel Monteiro Santos, one of the Cape Verdeans. Two of the Cape Verdeans wrote about their experiences in the local newspaper. See Agnelo Dantas, 'O primeiro juramento dos combatentes cabo-verdianos', Voz di Povo (Praia, Cape Verde), 16 Jan. 1988, p. 5 and Júlio de Carvalho, 'Nunca é desejável que a intervenção policial sea repressiva', Voz di Povo, 30 Jan. 1988, p. 6. See also '15 de Janeiro, um marco importante da nossa historia', Voz di Povo, 16 Jan. 1988, p. 11; Humberto Cardoso, O partido único em Cabo Verde (Praia, 1993), pp. 18-19.
26. Luís Cabral, Crónica da Libertação (Lisbon, 1984), pp. 251-2 (quoted); interviews with Víctor Dreke, a Cuban officer who headed the special unit that was in charge of training, and with Manuel Monteiro Santos, one of the Cape Verdeans. Two of the Cape Verdeans wrote about their experiences in the local newspaper. See Agnelo Dantas, 'O primeiro juramento dos combatentes cabo-verdianos', Voz di Povo (Praia, Cape Verde), 16 Jan. 1988, p. 5 and Júlio de Carvalho, 'Nunca é desejável que a intervenção policial sea repressiva', Voz di Povo, 30 Jan. 1988, p. 6. See also '15 de Janeiro, um marco importante da nossa historia', Voz di Povo, 16 Jan. 1988, p. 11; Humberto Cardoso, O partido único em Cabo Verde (Praia, 1993), pp. 18-19.
27. Luís Cabral, Crónica da Libertação (Lisbon, 1984), pp. 251-2 (quoted); interviews with Víctor Dreke, a Cuban officer who headed the special unit that was in charge of training, and with Manuel Monteiro Santos, one of the Cape Verdeans. Two of the Cape Verdeans wrote about their experiences in the local newspaper. See Agnelo Dantas, 'O primeiro juramento dos combatentes cabo-verdianos', Voz di Povo (Praia, Cape Verde), 16 Jan. 1988, p. 5 and Júlio de Carvalho, 'Nunca é desejável que a intervenção policial sea repressiva', Voz di Povo, 30 Jan. 1988, p. 6. See also '15 de Janeiro, um marco importante da nossa historia', Voz di Povo, 16 Jan. 1988, p. 11; Humberto Cardoso, O partido único em Cabo Verde (Praia, 1993), pp. 18-19.
28. See 'Ayuda brindada', pp. 7-8.
29. Interview with Jorge Risquet. For Cabral's speech at the Tricontinental, see Amílcar Cabral, Guinée 'Portugaise'': le pouvoir des armes (Paris, 1970), pp. 41-62.
30. Interviews with Oramas and Vasco Cabrai, who was a member of the 5-man PAIGC delegation.
31. Cabrai, Crónica, p. 251.
32. Interview with Oramas.
33. X to M [late 1965], quoted in 'Ayuda brindada', p. 7; interview with Oramas.
34. 'Ayuda brindada', pp. 12-14.
35. Interview with Oramas.
36. See Revolución (Havana), 14 Oct. (p. 16 quoted), 15 and 17 Oct. 1960, passim.
37. Interview with Dabo Bangaly, who belonged to the group. See also Republic of Guinée, Ministère des Affaires Etrangères et de la Coopération, 'Mémorandum sur la Coopération entre la République de Guinée et la République de Cuba', Conakry, July 1994, P- 3, Foreign Ministry Archives, Republic of Guinée.
38. On Sékou Touré's foreign policy see: Walter Leimgruber, Kalter Krieg um Afrika: Die amerikanische Afrikapolitik unter Präsident Kennedy 1961-1963 (Stuttgart, 1990), pp. 213-57; Sylvain Soriba Camara, La Guinée sans la France (Paris, 1976), pp. 115-18, 130-252 ; Claude Rivière, 'La politique étrangère de la Guinée', Revue française des études politiques africaines (Aug. 1971), pp. 37-68; Rajen Harshe, 'Non-Alignment and Francophone Africa: A Case Study of Guinea', The Non-aligned World (New Delhi) (July/Sept. 1983), pp. 371-85 ; William Attwood, The Reds and the Blacks: A Personal Narrative (New York, 1967), pp. 11-132.
39. On Sékou Touré's foreign policy see: Walter Leimgruber, Kalter Krieg um Afrika: Die amerikanische Afrikapolitik unter Präsident Kennedy 1961-1963 (Stuttgart, 1990), pp. 213-57; Sylvain Soriba Camara, La Guinée sans la France (Paris, 1976), pp. 115-18, 130-252 ; Claude Rivière, 'La politique étrangère de la Guinée', Revue française des études politiques africaines (Aug. 1971), pp. 37-68; Rajen Harshe, 'Non-Alignment and Francophone Africa: A Case Study of Guinea', The Non-aligned World (New Delhi) (July/Sept. 1983), pp. 371-85 ; William Attwood, The Reds and the Blacks: A Personal Narrative (New York, 1967), pp. 11-132.
40. On Sékou Touré's foreign policy see: Walter Leimgruber, Kalter Krieg um Afrika: Die amerikanische Afrikapolitik unter Präsident Kennedy 1961-1963 (Stuttgart, 1990), pp. 213-57; Sylvain Soriba Camara, La Guinée sans la France (Paris, 1976), pp. 115-18, 130-252 ; Claude Rivière, 'La politique étrangère de la Guinée', Revue française des études politiques africaines (Aug. 1971), pp. 37-68; Rajen Harshe, 'Non-Alignment and Francophone Africa: A Case Study of Guinea', The Non-aligned World (New Delhi) (July/Sept. 1983), pp. 371-85 ; William Attwood, The Reds and the Blacks: A Personal Narrative (New York, 1967), pp. 11-132.
41. On Sékou Touré's foreign policy see: Walter Leimgruber, Kalter Krieg um Afrika: Die amerikanische Afrikapolitik unter Präsident Kennedy 1961-1963 (Stuttgart, 1990), pp. 213-57; Sylvain Soriba Camara, La Guinée sans la France (Paris, 1976), pp. 115-18, 130-252 ; Claude Rivière, 'La politique étrangère de la Guinée', Revue française des études politiques africaines (Aug. 1971), pp. 37-68; Rajen Harshe, 'Non-Alignment and Francophone Africa: A Case Study of Guinea', The Non-aligned World (New Delhi) (July/Sept. 1983), pp. 371-85 ; William Attwood, The Reds and the Blacks: A Personal Narrative (New York, 1967), pp. 11-132.
42. On Sékou Touré's foreign policy see: Walter Leimgruber, Kalter Krieg um Afrika: Die amerikanische Afrikapolitik unter Präsident Kennedy 1961-1963 (Stuttgart, 1990), pp. 213-57; Sylvain Soriba Camara, La Guinée sans la France (Paris, 1976), pp. 115-18, 130-252 ; Claude Rivière, 'La politique étrangère de la Guinée', Revue française des études politiques africaines (Aug. 1971), pp. 37-68; Rajen Harshe, 'Non-Alignment and Francophone Africa: A Case Study of Guinea', The Non-aligned World (New Delhi) (July/Sept. 1983), pp. 371-85 ; William Attwood, The Reds and the Blacks: A Personal Narrative (New York, 1967), pp. 11-132.
43. Interview with Oramas; Horoya (Conakry), 3 May 1966, p. 1.
44. 'Ayuda brindada', pp. 14-15.
45. Interview with Galarza.
46. 'Ayuda brindada', p. 15 quoted; interviews with Heriberto Salavarría who was on the plane, and with Galarza, Alfonso Pérez Morales (Pina) and Luis Peraza, who were on the Lidia Doce.
47. Cabral, Crónica, p. 252.
48. 'Ayuda brindada', pp. 14-17.
49. Cabral, Crónica, p. 252.
50. Erasmo Vidiaux, 'Diario de Vera', entry of 18 Mar. 1967, private collection, Havana (hereafter PCH). 'Vera' was Vidiaux's nom de guerre.
51. Interviews with Galarza (quoted), Oramas, Dreke (head of mission, 1967-8) and Enrique Montero (head of mission, 1969-70). For the PAIGC's release of Portuguese prisoners, see Dakar-Matin: 16 Mar. 1968, p. 3; 13 Dec. 1968, p. 1; 28 Dec. 1968, p. 1; El Moudjahid (Algiers), 19 Aug. 1969, p. 1; Le Monde, 20 Aug. 1969, p. 5.
52. Interviews with Galarza (quoted), Oramas, Dreke (head of mission, 1967-8) and Enrique Montero (head of mission, 1969-70). For the PAIGC's release of Portuguese prisoners, see Dakar-Matin: 16 Mar. 1968, p. 3; 13 Dec. 1968, p. 1; 28 Dec. 1968, p. 1; El Moudjahid (Algiers), 19 Aug. 1969, p. 1; Le Monde, 20 Aug. 1969, p. 5.
53. Interviews with Galarza (quoted), Oramas, Dreke (head of mission, 1967-8) and Enrique Montero (head of mission, 1969-70). For the PAIGC's release of Portuguese prisoners, see Dakar-Matin: 16 Mar. 1968, p. 3; 13 Dec. 1968, p. 1; 28 Dec. 1968, p. 1; El Moudjahid (Algiers), 19 Aug. 1969, p. 1; Le Monde, 20 Aug. 1969, p. 5.
54. Quotations from CIA, Directorate of Intelligence, 'Cuban Meddling in Africa', 24 Mar. 1967, p. 4, FOIA 1996/605 and interview with McIlvaine. See also CIA, Directorate of Intelligence, 'Some Aspects of Subversion in Africa', 19 Oct. 1967, p. 9, National Security File Country File (hereafter NSFCF): Union of South Africa, box 78, Lyndon B. Johnson Library (hereafter LBJL); CIA, National Intelligence Estimate, 'The Liberation Movements of Southern Africa', 24 Nov. 1967, National Security File, NIE, box 8, LBJL; Knight (Lisbon) to DOS, 19 Oct. 1971, p. 2, FOIA 1982/1889; 'Policy Planning Memorandum No. 1', enclosed in DOS to All African Diplomatic Posts, Lisbon, London, Paris, Rome, 2 Dec. 1971, FOIA 1982/0426; Knight (Lisbon) to DOS, 7 Jan. 1972, FOIA 1982/2672. On US officials and the Cuban presence in Zaïre in 1965, see Piero Gleijeses, '"Flee! The White Giants Are Coming!" The United States, the Mercenaries, and the Congo, 1964-1965 ', Diplomatic History (Spring 1994), pp. 220-1.
55. Quotations from CIA, Directorate of Intelligence, 'Cuban Meddling in Africa', 24 Mar. 1967, p. 4, FOIA 1996/605 and interview with McIlvaine. See also CIA, Directorate of Intelligence, 'Some Aspects of Subversion in Africa', 19 Oct. 1967, p. 9, National Security File Country File (hereafter NSFCF): Union of South Africa, box 78, Lyndon B. Johnson Library (hereafter LBJL); CIA, National Intelligence Estimate, 'The Liberation Movements of Southern Africa', 24 Nov. 1967, National Security File, NIE, box 8, LBJL; Knight (Lisbon) to DOS, 19 Oct. 1971, p. 2, FOIA 1982/1889; 'Policy Planning Memorandum No. 1', enclosed in DOS to All African Diplomatic Posts, Lisbon, London, Paris, Rome, 2 Dec. 1971, FOIA 1982/0426; Knight (Lisbon) to DOS, 7 Jan. 1972, FOIA 1982/2672. On US officials and the Cuban presence in Zaïre in 1965, see Piero Gleijeses, '"Flee! The White Giants Are Coming!" The United States, the Mercenaries, and the Congo, 1964-1965 ', Diplomatic History (Spring 1994), pp. 220-1.
56. Quotations from CIA, Directorate of Intelligence, 'Cuban Meddling in Africa', 24 Mar. 1967, p. 4, FOIA 1996/605 and interview with McIlvaine. See also CIA, Directorate of Intelligence, 'Some Aspects of Subversion in Africa', 19 Oct. 1967, p. 9, National Security File Country File (hereafter NSFCF): Union of South Africa, box 78, Lyndon B. Johnson Library (hereafter LBJL); CIA, National Intelligence Estimate, 'The Liberation Movements of Southern Africa', 24 Nov. 1967, National Security File, NIE, box 8, LBJL; Knight (Lisbon) to DOS, 19 Oct. 1971, p. 2, FOIA 1982/1889; 'Policy Planning Memorandum No. 1', enclosed in DOS to All African Diplomatic Posts, Lisbon, London, Paris, Rome, 2 Dec. 1971, FOIA 1982/0426; Knight (Lisbon) to DOS, 7 Jan. 1972, FOIA 1982/2672. On US officials and the Cuban presence in Zaïre in 1965, see Piero Gleijeses, '"Flee! The White Giants Are Coming!" The United States, the Mercenaries, and the Congo, 1964-1965 ', Diplomatic History (Spring 1994), pp. 220-1.
57. Quotations from CIA, Directorate of Intelligence, 'Cuban Meddling in Africa', 24 Mar. 1967, p. 4, FOIA 1996/605 and interview with McIlvaine. See also CIA, Directorate of Intelligence, 'Some Aspects of Subversion in Africa', 19 Oct. 1967, p. 9, National Security File Country File (hereafter NSFCF): Union of South Africa, box 78, Lyndon B. Johnson Library (hereafter LBJL); CIA, National Intelligence Estimate, 'The Liberation Movements of Southern Africa', 24 Nov. 1967, National Security File, NIE, box 8, LBJL; Knight (Lisbon) to DOS, 19 Oct. 1971, p. 2, FOIA 1982/1889; 'Policy Planning Memorandum No. 1', enclosed in DOS to All African Diplomatic Posts, Lisbon, London, Paris, Rome, 2 Dec. 1971, FOIA 1982/0426; Knight (Lisbon) to DOS, 7 Jan. 1972, FOIA 1982/2672. On US officials and the Cuban presence in Zaïre in 1965, see Piero Gleijeses, '"Flee! The White Giants Are Coming!" The United States, the Mercenaries, and the Congo, 1964-1965 ', Diplomatic History (Spring 1994), pp. 220-1.
58. Quotations from CIA, Directorate of Intelligence, 'Cuban Meddling in Africa', 24 Mar. 1967, p. 4, FOIA 1996/605 and interview with McIlvaine. See also CIA, Directorate of Intelligence, 'Some Aspects of Subversion in Africa', 19 Oct. 1967, p. 9, National Security File Country File (hereafter NSFCF): Union of South Africa, box 78, Lyndon B. Johnson Library (hereafter LBJL); CIA, National Intelligence Estimate, 'The Liberation Movements of Southern Africa', 24 Nov. 1967, National Security File, NIE, box 8, LBJL; Knight (Lisbon) to DOS, 19 Oct. 1971, p. 2, FOIA 1982/1889; 'Policy Planning Memorandum No. 1', enclosed in DOS to All African Diplomatic Posts, Lisbon, London, Paris, Rome, 2 Dec. 1971, FOIA 1982/0426; Knight (Lisbon) to DOS, 7 Jan. 1972, FOIA 1982/2672. On US officials and the Cuban presence in Zaïre in 1965, see Piero Gleijeses, '"Flee! The White Giants Are Coming!" The United States, the Mercenaries, and the Congo, 1964-1965 ', Diplomatic History (Spring 1994), pp. 220-1.
59. In 1972 the armed forces took charge of the mission. Particularly useful on relations between the MMCG and Havana were interviews with Dreke, who headed the MMCG in 1967-8, and two of his successors, Erasmo Vidiaux and Enrique Montero, with Ambassadors Oramas and Manuel Agramonte (who replaced Oramas in 1973), with Estrada and with Oscar Cárdenas, head of the section in M's Directión 5 that included Guinée and Guinea-Bissau.
60. Interviews with Pina, Arafam Mané and Oramas. Artemio was probably chosen because M wanted an intelligence officer to head the group. (Interview with Dreke.)
61. Aurelio Richard [Artemio] to Moya [Dreke], Havana, 8 May 1967, p. 3, PCH and Moya to Artemio, Conakry, 30 May 1967, PCH.
62. Interviews with Mané (quoted), and with the Cubans Salavarria and Estrada (all of whom participated in the attack) ; Ministerio de las Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias (hereafter MINFAR), 'Las misiones internacionalistas desarrolladas por las FAR en defensa de la independencia y la soberanía de los pueblos', n.d., p. 20, archives of the Instituto de Historia de Cuba. (Hereafter 'Las misiones'.)
63. Interview with Oramas.
64. Che Guevara, 'Evaluación del personal a mis ordenes', [Dar-es-Salaam, late 1965], PCH.
65. Interview with Dreke (quoted); 'Las misiones', p. 21.
66. Interviews with Vidiaux and Dreke.
67. Interview with Vidiaux.
68. Interviews with Batista (quoted), Dreke, and Vidiaux. See also 'Ayuda brindada', p. 20.
69. Quotations from interviews with Pina and Batista.
70. Interviews with Mane and João Bernardo Vieira (Nino).
71. Interview with Dreke.
72. 'Ayuda brindada', pp. 18, 20; interview with Dreke. In April 1967 one hundred and eight Cubans were attached to the MMCG, thirty-eight of whom had come to train the militia of Guinée at Touré's request. 'We thought there might soon be a military coup against Sékou Touré and if he were overthrown, the PAIGC would lose its rearguard.' The project, however, was shortlived: the mercurial Touré soon lost interest, and in 1968 the Cuban instructors returned to Havana. (Interviews with Dreke [quoted], Oramas, Vidiaux, Estrada and Augusto Veranes, who was one of the instructors. See [MMCG] 'Plan de trabajo', 27 Oct. 1966, PCH; Moya to [Reinerio] Jimenez [late spring 1967], PCH; MINFAR, 'Grupos y lugares donde se desarrolla la instructión de milicia en la república de Guinea', 28 Feb. 1968, PCH.)
73. 'Ayuda brindada', pp. 18, 20; interview with Dreke. In April 1967 one hundred and eight Cubans were attached to the MMCG, thirty-eight of whom had come to train the militia of Guinée at Touré's request. 'We thought there might soon be a military coup against Sékou Touré and if he were overthrown, the PAIGC would lose its rearguard.' The project, however, was shortlived: the mercurial Touré soon lost interest, and in 1968 the Cuban instructors returned to Havana. (Interviews with Dreke [quoted], Oramas, Vidiaux, Estrada and Augusto Veranes, who was one of the instructors. See [MMCG] 'Plan de trabajo', 27 Oct. 1966, PCH; Moya to [Reinerio] Jimenez [late spring 1967], PCH; MINFAR, 'Grupos y lugares donde se desarrolla la instructión de milicia en la república de Guinea', 28 Feb. 1968, PCH.)
74. 'Ayuda brindada', pp. 18, 20; interview with Dreke. In April 1967 one hundred and eight Cubans were attached to the MMCG, thirty-eight of whom had come to train the militia of Guinée at Touré's request. 'We thought there might soon be a military coup against Sékou Touré and if he were overthrown, the PAIGC would lose its rearguard.' The project, however, was shortlived: the mercurial Touré soon lost interest, and in 1968 the Cuban instructors returned to Havana. (Interviews with Dreke [quoted], Oramas, Vidiaux, Estrada and Augusto Veranes, who was one of the instructors. See [MMCG] 'Plan de trabajo', 27 Oct. 1966, PCH; Moya to [Reinerio] Jimenez [late spring 1967], PCH; MINFAR, 'Grupos y lugares donde se desarrolla la instructión de milicia en la república de Guinea', 28 Feb. 1968, PCH.)
75. Moya to Ulises [Estrada], 16 Oct. 1967, PCH.
76. Brown (Dakar) to DOS, 3 Jan. 1969, pp. 2-5, FOIA 1983/1205. The United States had no representatives in Guinea-Bissau. Information on the war was gathered primarily by the US embassies in Lisbon and Dakar.
77. Venter, Portugal's Guerrilla War, p.15.
78. Brown (Dakar) to DOS, 5 Jan. 1969, pp. 4, 9, FOIA 1983/1205.
79. Diário de Notícias, 30 Nov. 1969, p. 15.
80. Quotations from Hughes (INR) to SecState, 'Portuguese Guinea; Peace Talks in the Offing?' 25 Mar. 1969, p. 1, FOIA 1982/1027 and from Chabal, Amilcar Cabral, p. 94.
81. Quotations from Hughes (INR) to SecState, 'Portuguese Guinea; Peace Talks in the Offing?' 25 Mar. 1969, p. 1, FOIA 1982/1027 and from Chabal, Amilcar Cabral, p. 94.
82. Pedro Pires, 'Os antigos chefes spinolistas mantiveram contactos com os conspiradores', Expresse (Lisbon), 5 Apr. 1975, pp. 8-9.
83. Amílcar Cabrai, quoted in John Woollacott, 'A luta pela libertação nacional na GuinéBissau e a revolução em Portugal', Anaĺise Social, vol. 19 (1983), p. 1136.
84. Knight (Lisbon) to DOS, 19 Oct. 1971, p. 3, FOIA 1982/1889. 'The PAIGC has around 7,000 well-armed, well-trained effectives and receives extensive Soviet support. Cubans are involved in PAIGC insurgency activities.' ('Policy Planning Memorandum No. I', p. 9, enclosed in DOS to All African Diplomatic Posts, Lisbon, London, Paris, Rome, 2 Dec. 1971, FOIA 1982/0426). According to Cabral's deputy Aristides Pereira, the number of PAIGC guerrillas hovered around 5-6,000. (Pereira, quoted in José Pedro Castanheira, Quem mandou matar Amilcar Cabral? (Lisbon, 1995), pp. 159-60.)
85. Knight (Lisbon) to DOS, 19 Oct. 1971, p. 3, FOIA 1982/1889. 'The PAIGC has around 7,000 well-armed, well-trained effectives and receives extensive Soviet support. Cubans are involved in PAIGC insurgency activities.' ('Policy Planning Memorandum No. I', p. 9, enclosed in DOS to All African Diplomatic Posts, Lisbon, London, Paris, Rome, 2 Dec. 1971, FOIA 1982/0426). According to Cabral's deputy Aristides Pereira, the number of PAIGC guerrillas hovered around 5-6,000. (Pereira, quoted in José Pedro Castanheira, Quem mandou matar Amilcar Cabral? (Lisbon, 1995), pp. 159-60.)
86. Venter, Portugal's Guerrilla War, pp. 49, 80.
87. Quotations from 'Quem invadiu e como a Guiné Conackry,' Expresso, 3 Jan. 1976, p. 8 and Carlos Fabiâo, 'A descolonização na Guiné-Bissau,' in Associação 25 de Abril, Seminário 25 de Abril: 10 anos depois (Lisbon, 1984), p. 308. Alpoim Calvão, the Portuguese officer in charge of the operation, confirmed that had Cabrai been in Conakry, 'he would definitely have been killed'. (Público [Lisbon], 21 May 1991, p. 19). See also Alpoim Calvão, De Conakry ao M.D.L.P.: Dossier secreto (Lisbon, 1976), pp. 51-86.
88. Quotations from 'Quem invadiu e como a Guiné Conackry,' Expresso, 3 Jan. 1976, p. 8 and Carlos Fabiâo, 'A descolonização na Guiné-Bissau,' in Associação 25 de Abril, Seminário 25 de Abril: 10 anos depois (Lisbon, 1984), p. 308. Alpoim Calvão, the Portuguese officer in charge of the operation, confirmed that had Cabrai been in Conakry, 'he would definitely have been killed'. (Público [Lisbon], 21 May 1991, p. 19). See also Alpoim Calvão, De Conakry ao M.D.L.P.: Dossier secreto (Lisbon, 1976), pp. 51-86.
89. Quotations from 'Quem invadiu e como a Guiné Conackry,' Expresso, 3 Jan. 1976, p. 8 and Carlos Fabiâo, 'A descolonização na Guiné-Bissau,' in Associação 25 de Abril, Seminário 25 de Abril: 10 anos depois (Lisbon, 1984), p. 308. Alpoim Calvão, the Portuguese officer in charge of the operation, confirmed that had Cabrai been in Conakry, 'he would definitely have been killed'. (Público [Lisbon], 21 May 1991, p. 19). See also Alpoim Calvão, De Conakry ao M.D.L.P.: Dossier secreto (Lisbon, 1976), pp. 51-86.
90. Quotations from 'Quem invadiu e como a Guiné Conackry,' Expresso, 3 Jan. 1976, p. 8 and Carlos Fabiâo, 'A descolonização na Guiné-Bissau,' in Associação 25 de Abril, Seminário 25 de Abril: 10 anos depois (Lisbon, 1984), p. 308. Alpoim Calvão, the Portuguese officer in charge of the operation, confirmed that had Cabrai been in Conakry, 'he would definitely have been killed'. (Público [Lisbon], 21 May 1991, p. 19). See also Alpoim Calvão, De Conakry ao M.D.L.P.: Dossier secreto (Lisbon, 1976), pp. 51-86.
91. Spinola to Caetano, 11 Nov. 1970, in José Freire Antunes, ed., Cartas particulares a Marcello Caetano (Lisbon, 1985), vol. I, p. 149.
92. Yost to SecState, 8 Nov. 1970, p. 2, FOIA 1982/2654.
93. The resolution warned Portugal that 'in the event of any repetition of armed attacks against independent African States, the Security Council shall immediately consider appropriate, effective steps in accordance with the relevant provision of the Charter of the United Nations.' For the text of the resolution, see United Nations, Security Council Official Records, I,562nd meeting, 7 Dec. 1970, p. 6; for Yost's statement, see ibid., I,563rd meeting, 8 Dec. 1970, pp. 5-7.
94. NYT (ed.), Io Dec. 1970, p. 46.
95. Richard Pattee, 'Portuguese Guinea: A Crucial Struggle', South Africa International (Jan. 1974), p. 139.
96. Quotations from DOS, MemoCov (Cabrai, Smith, et al.), 26 Feb. 1970, p. 2, FOIA 1982/1048 and from James Loeb, letter to the editor, NYT, 14 Feb. 1973, p. 40.
97. Bennett (Lisbon) to DOS, 3 Apr. 1968, p. 6, FOIA 1982/0392.
98. Quotations from Stevenson to SecState, no. 257, 26 July 1963, pp. 1-2 of Section I and pp. 1-2 of Section 2, Stevenson Papers (hereafter SP), box WH-1, John F. Kennedy Library (hereafter JFKL). See also Amembassy Lisbon to SecState, 11 July 1963 , National Security File, box 154, JFKL; Stevenson to SecState, no. 256, 26 July 1963, SP, box WH-1, JFKL; Stevenson to SecState, Aug. I, 1963, ibid.; Hughes (INR) to SecState ('Focus on Portuguese Guinea'), 16 Aug. 1963, p. 11, ibid.; Elbrick to DOS, 17 Aug. 1963, National Security File, box 154a, JFKL; Rusk to Amembassy Lisbon, 3 Dec. 1963, FOIA 1976/0657.
99. Williams to Tyler, 8 Apr. 1964, p. 1, Mennen Williams Papers, box 12, RG 59, National Archives, and James Loeb to Williams, Conakry, 19 June 1964, p. 2, ibid., box 28; see also Williams to Loeb, 30 June 1964, ibid., box 12.
100. Stevenson to Kennedy, 26 June 1963, p. 2, National Security File, box 154, JFKL.
101. Leimgruber, Kalter Krieg, p. 105. For Kennedy's Portuguese policy, see ibid., pp. 92-127; Richard Mahoney, JFK: Ordeal in Africa (New York), 1983, pp. 187-222, 304-14; John Marcum, The Angolan Revolution: The Anatomy of an Explosion (1910-1962) (Cambridge, Mass., 1969), pp. 181-7, 268-77; José Freire Antunes, Kennedy e Salazar: O leão e a raposa (Lisbon, 1991). Thomas Noer, Cold War and Black Liberation: The United States and White Rule in Africa, 1948-1968 (Columbia, Missouri, 1985), pp. 61-125, covers both the Kennedy and Johnson years.
102. Leimgruber, Kalter Krieg, p. 105. For Kennedy's Portuguese policy, see ibid., pp. 92-127; Richard Mahoney, JFK: Ordeal in Africa (New York), 1983, pp. 187-222, 304-14; John Marcum, The Angolan Revolution: The Anatomy of an Explosion (1910-1962) (Cambridge, Mass., 1969), pp. 181-7, 268-77; José Freire Antunes, Kennedy e Salazar: O leão e a raposa (Lisbon, 1991). Thomas Noer, Cold War and Black Liberation: The United States and White Rule in Africa, 1948-1968 (Columbia, Missouri, 1985), pp. 61-125, covers both the Kennedy and Johnson years.
103. Leimgruber, Kalter Krieg, p. 105. For Kennedy's Portuguese policy, see ibid., pp. 92-127; Richard Mahoney, JFK: Ordeal in Africa (New York), 1983, pp. 187-222, 304-14; John Marcum, The Angolan Revolution: The Anatomy of an Explosion (1910-1962) (Cambridge, Mass., 1969), pp. 181-7, 268-77; José Freire Antunes, Kennedy e Salazar: O leão e a raposa (Lisbon, 1991). Thomas Noer, Cold War and Black Liberation: The United States and White Rule in Africa, 1948-1968 (Columbia, Missouri, 1985), pp. 61-125, covers both the Kennedy and Johnson years.
104. Leimgruber, Kalter Krieg, p. 105. For Kennedy's Portuguese policy, see ibid., pp. 92-127; Richard Mahoney, JFK: Ordeal in Africa (New York), 1983, pp. 187-222, 304-14; John Marcum, The Angolan Revolution: The Anatomy of an Explosion (1910-1962) (Cambridge, Mass., 1969), pp. 181-7, 268-77; José Freire Antunes, Kennedy e Salazar: O leão e a raposa (Lisbon, 1991). Thomas Noer, Cold War and Black Liberation: The United States and White Rule in Africa, 1948-1968 (Columbia, Missouri, 1985), pp. 61-125, covers both the Kennedy and Johnson years.
105. Leimgruber, Kalter Krieg, p. 105. For Kennedy's Portuguese policy, see ibid., pp. 92-127; Richard Mahoney, JFK: Ordeal in Africa (New York), 1983, pp. 187-222, 304-14; John Marcum, The Angolan Revolution: The Anatomy of an Explosion (1910-1962) (Cambridge, Mass., 1969), pp. 181-7, 268-77; José Freire Antunes, Kennedy e Salazar: O leão e a raposa (Lisbon, 1991). Thomas Noer, Cold War and Black Liberation: The United States and White Rule in Africa, 1948-1968 (Columbia, Missouri, 1985), pp. 61-125, covers both the Kennedy and Johnson years.
106. Leimgruber, Kalter Krieg, p. 105. For Kennedy's Portuguese policy, see ibid., pp. 92-127; Richard Mahoney, JFK: Ordeal in Africa (New York), 1983, pp. 187-222, 304-14; John Marcum, The Angolan Revolution: The Anatomy of an Explosion (1910-1962) (Cambridge, Mass., 1969), pp. 181-7, 268-77; José Freire Antunes, Kennedy e Salazar: O leão e a raposa (Lisbon, 1991). Thomas Noer, Cold War and Black Liberation: The United States and White Rule in Africa, 1948-1968 (Columbia, Missouri, 1985), pp. 61-125, covers both the Kennedy and Johnson years.
107. Amembassy Dar-es-Salaam to SecState, 21 Apr. 1969, FOIA 1983/1209.
108. General Francisco Costa Gomes, quoted by José Freire Antunes, Nixon e Caetano: promessas e abandono (Lisbon, 1992), p. 110.
109. NYT, 11 Dec. 1971, p. 16 and 18 Dec. 1971, p. 18 (ed.).
110. Waldemar Nielsen, letter to the editor, NYT, 29 Dec. 1971, p. 30; Cabral quoted in NYT, 2 Feb. 1972, p. 11. The best study on Nixon and Portugal is Antunes, Nixon e Caetano.
111. Waldemar Nielsen, letter to the editor, NYT, 29 Dec. 1971, p. 30; Cabral quoted in NYT, 2 Feb. 1972, p. 11. The best study on Nixon and Portugal is Antunes, Nixon e Caetano.
112. Waldemar Nielsen, letter to the editor, NYT, 29 Dec. 1971, p. 30; Cabral quoted in NYT, 2 Feb. 1972, p. 11. The best study on Nixon and Portugal is Antunes, Nixon e Caetano.
113. Davidson, No Fist, p. 62.
114. Quoted in Nõ Pintcha, 12 Sept. 1977, p. 1.
115. Interview with Antonio Borges.
116. All the PAIGC officials whom I interviewed confirmed this. The Bissau newspaper Nõ Pintcha, which began publication in August 1975, ran well over one hundred retrospective articles on the war over the next decade. Many refer to the Cuban military presence in Guinea-Bissau; none mentions any other foreign presence.
117. Interview with Risquet. Cabral had gone to Brazzaville for a meeting of the Conférencia das Organizações Nacionalistas das Colónias Portuguesas (La Semaine [Brazzaville], 4 Sept. 1966, p. 5).
118. Interview with Dreke.
119. This figure is approximate and is calculated on the basis of the data in 'Ayuda brindada' and 'Protocole de asistencia técnica entre el partido comunista de Cuba y el Partido Africans por la Independencia de Guinea Bissau y Cabo Verde', Conakry, 27 May 1972, appendix 1, CID-FAR and in interviews with the participants.
120. Interview with Nino. The five paragraphs that follow are based on interviews with these senior PAIGC officials: Leopoldo Antonio Alfama (Duky), Borges, Fidelis Cabrai, Mané, Nino, Joseph Turpin, Vasco Cabrai.
121. Quotations from interviews with Duky and Mané.
122. Interview with Nino.
123. For the military ranks of the volunteers: Dreke to Vice-Ministro para el Trab. Pol., 8 Dec. 1969, PCH; Moya to Vice-Ministro J' Dir. Política, 'Informe', 14 Aug. 1970, PCH; 'Ayuda brindada'; interviews with volunteers.
124. Quotations from interview with Dreke and from Dantas, 'O primeiro juramento'; interview with the Cape Verdean Monteiro Santos; Cabrai, Crónica, pp. 254-5, 281-3; Cardoso, O partido, pp. 18-19; ' '15 de Janeiro um marco importante de nossa história', Voz di Povo, 16 Jan. 1988, p. n.
125. Quotations from interview with Dreke and from Dantas, 'O primeiro juramento'; interview with the Cape Verdean Monteiro Santos; Cabrai, Crónica, pp. 254-5, 281-3; Cardoso, O partido, pp. 18-19; ' '15 de Janeiro um marco importante de nossa história', Voz di Povo, 16 Jan. 1988, p. n.
126. Quotations from interview with Dreke and from Dantas, 'O primeiro juramento'; interview with the Cape Verdean Monteiro Santos; Cabrai, Crónica, pp. 254-5, 281-3; Cardoso, O partido, pp. 18-19; ' '15 de Janeiro um marco importante de nossa história', Voz di Povo, 16 Jan. 1988, p. n.
127. Interview with Dreke.
128. Interview with Duky.
129. Interview with Montero.
130. Quotations from E. D. Valimamad, 'Nationalist Politics, War and Statehood: Guinea-Bissau, 1955-1975', St Catherine's College, Oxford, 1984, p. 137, and from interview with Francisca Pereira. The best overview is Mustafah Dhada, 'Guinea-Bissau's Diplomacy and Liberation Struggle', Portuguese Studies Review, vol. 4 (Spring-Summer 1995), PP- 20-39
131. Quotations from E. D. Valimamad, 'Nationalist Politics, War and Statehood: Guinea-Bissau, 1955-1975', St Catherine's College, Oxford, 1984, p. 137, and from interview with Francisca Pereira. The best overview is Mustafah Dhada, 'Guinea-Bissau's Diplomacy and Liberation Struggle', Portuguese Studies Review, vol. 4 (Spring-Summer 1995), PP- 20-39
132. Quotations from interview with Dreke and 'Diario de Vera' [entry of mid-1968],
133. Interview with Dreke.
134. Interview with Dreke.
135. See Piero Gleijeses, 'Cuba's First Venture in Africa: Algeria, 1961-1965', Journal of Latin American Studies (Feb. 1996), pp. 159-95; and Piero Gleijeses, 'Truth or Credibility: Castro, Carter, and the Invasions of Shaba', The International History Review (February 1996), pp. 70-103; Piero Gleijeses, 'Cuban Policy in Africa, 1959-1976', Cold War International History Project Bulletin (Dec. 1996).
136. See Piero Gleijeses, 'Cuba's First Venture in Africa: Algeria, 1961-1965', Journal of Latin American Studies (Feb. 1996), pp. 159-95; and Piero Gleijeses, 'Truth or Credibility: Castro, Carter, and the Invasions of Shaba', The International History Review (February 1996), pp. 70-103; Piero Gleijeses, 'Cuban Policy in Africa, 1959-1976', Cold War International History Project Bulletin (Dec. 1996).
137. See Piero Gleijeses, 'Cuba's First Venture in Africa: Algeria, 1961-1965', Journal of Latin American Studies (Feb. 1996), pp. 159-95; and Piero Gleijeses, 'Truth or Credibility: Castro, Carter, and the Invasions of Shaba', The International History Review (February 1996), pp. 70-103; Piero Gleijeses, 'Cuban Policy in Africa, 1959-1976', Cold War International History Project Bulletin (Dec. 1996).
138. Interviews with PAIGC leaders Vasco Cabrai and Turpin.
139. Cabrai, Cránicn, pp. 253 et seq.
140. Interview with Nino.
141. Interview with Peraza.
142. Interviews with Peraza (quoted) and Rubén Pérez de León (who was with the second group of doctors).
143. Interviews with the Cuban doctors Peraza, Milton Hechavarría, Haul Candebat, Pablo Pérez Capdet and Pérez de León. For a vivid description of one such hospital, see Renato Sesana, Liberate il mio popolo. Diario di viaggio di un prete tra i guerriglieri della Guinea-Bissau (Bologna, 1974), pp. 126-9.
144. Cabrai, Crónica, p. 253.
145. Quotations from interview with Fidelis Cabrai and from Hugo Spadafora, Experiencias y pensamiento de un médico guerrillero (Panama City, 1980), pp. 47, 50.
146. Interviews with PAIGC officials Fidelis Cabrai, Nino, Armando Ramos, Vasco Cabral, Francisca Pereira and Ariette Cabrai and with the Guinean doctors and physician's assistants listed in n. 112 below.
147. Interviews with the following Cuban and Guinean health personnel who worked at the Boké hospital: Pérez Capdet, Venancio Furtado, Paulo Medina, Gaudêncio de Sousa Carvahlo, Paulo Alves; see also Cabrai, Crónica, p. 329.
148. Cabrai, Crónica, p. 371 (quoted) and interviews with Lopes Moreira (quoted) and Alves.
149. Cabral, Cránica, pp. 297-8, 336-7, 341 (quoted); interviews with Hechavarría (Mariano Sixto), Francisca Pereira, Duky, Borges; Sesana, Liberate, pp. 37, 71-2. In 1969, Dakar temporarily closed the hospital and arrested several PAIGC officials. 'the PAIGC had to evacuate over one hundred wounded... over 400 miles of very poor roads to Koundara.' (Suzanne Lipinska, 'Deux semaines dans le maquis de la Guinée Bissao,' Africasia, 25 May 1970, p. 13 (quoted); interview with Duky; NYT, 8 July 1970, p. 10.) In the early 1960s, Senegal's President Léopold Sédar Senghor was very hostile to the PAIGC and Cabral (whom he suspected of being a communist), but during the war his opinion changed to one of high respect for Cabrai and limited support for the PAIGC. See Chabal, Amilcar Cabrai, pp. 84-5 and Antunes, Nixon e Caetano, pp. 91-6.
150. Cabral, Cránica, pp. 297-8, 336-7, 341 (quoted); interviews with Hechavarría (Mariano Sixto), Francisca Pereira, Duky, Borges; Sesana, Liberate, pp. 37, 71-2. In 1969, Dakar temporarily closed the hospital and arrested several PAIGC officials. 'the PAIGC had to evacuate over one hundred wounded... over 400 miles of very poor roads to Koundara.' (Suzanne Lipinska, 'Deux semaines dans le maquis de la Guinée Bissao,' Africasia, 25 May 1970, p. 13 (quoted); interview with Duky; NYT, 8 July 1970, p. 10.) In the early 1960s, Senegal's President Léopold Sédar Senghor was very hostile to the PAIGC and Cabral (whom he suspected of being a communist), but during the war his opinion changed to one of high respect for Cabrai and limited support for the PAIGC. See Chabal, Amilcar Cabrai, pp. 84-5 and Antunes, Nixon e Caetano, pp. 91-6.
151. Cabral, Cránica, pp. 297-8, 336-7, 341 (quoted); interviews with Hechavarría (Mariano Sixto), Francisca Pereira, Duky, Borges; Sesana, Liberate, pp. 37, 71-2. In 1969, Dakar temporarily closed the hospital and arrested several PAIGC officials. 'the PAIGC had to evacuate over one hundred wounded... over 400 miles of very poor roads to Koundara.' (Suzanne Lipinska, 'Deux semaines dans le maquis de la Guinée Bissao,' Africasia, 25 May 1970, p. 13 (quoted); interview with Duky; NYT, 8 July 1970, p. 10.) In the early 1960s, Senegal's President Léopold Sédar Senghor was very hostile to the PAIGC and Cabral (whom he suspected of being a communist), but during the war his opinion changed to one of high respect for Cabrai and limited support for the PAIGC. See Chabal, Amilcar Cabrai, pp. 84-5 and Antunes, Nixon e Caetano, pp. 91-6.
152. Cabral, Cránica, pp. 297-8, 336-7, 341 (quoted); interviews with Hechavarría (Mariano Sixto), Francisca Pereira, Duky, Borges; Sesana, Liberate, pp. 37, 71-2. In 1969, Dakar temporarily closed the hospital and arrested several PAIGC officials. 'the PAIGC had to evacuate over one hundred wounded... over 400 miles of very poor roads to Koundara.' (Suzanne Lipinska, 'Deux semaines dans le maquis de la Guinée Bissao,' Africasia, 25 May 1970, p. 13 (quoted); interview with Duky; NYT, 8 July 1970, p. 10.) In the early 1960s, Senegal's President Léopold Sédar Senghor was very hostile to the PAIGC and Cabral (whom he suspected of being a communist), but during the war his opinion changed to one of high respect for Cabrai and limited support for the PAIGC. See Chabal, Amilcar Cabrai, pp. 84-5 and Antunes, Nixon e Caetano, pp. 91-6.
153. Cabral, Cránica, pp. 297-8, 336-7, 341 (quoted); interviews with Hechavarría (Mariano Sixto), Francisca Pereira, Duky, Borges; Sesana, Liberate, pp. 37, 71-2. In 1969, Dakar temporarily closed the hospital and arrested several PAIGC officials. 'the PAIGC had to evacuate over one hundred wounded... over 400 miles of very poor roads to Koundara.' (Suzanne Lipinska, 'Deux semaines dans le maquis de la Guinée Bissao,' Africasia, 25 May 1970, p. 13 (quoted); interview with Duky; NYT, 8 July 1970, p. 10.) In the early 1960s, Senegal's President Léopold Sédar Senghor was very hostile to the PAIGC and Cabral (whom he suspected of being a communist), but during the war his opinion changed to one of high respect for Cabrai and limited support for the PAIGC. See Chabal, Amilcar Cabrai, pp. 84-5 and Antunes, Nixon e Caetano, pp. 91-6.
154. Cabral, Cránica, pp. 297-8, 336-7, 341 (quoted); interviews with Hechavarría (Mariano Sixto), Francisca Pereira, Duky, Borges; Sesana, Liberate, pp. 37, 71-2. In 1969, Dakar temporarily closed the hospital and arrested several PAIGC officials. 'the PAIGC had to evacuate over one hundred wounded... over 400 miles of very poor roads to Koundara.' (Suzanne Lipinska, 'Deux semaines dans le maquis de la Guinée Bissao,' Africasia, 25 May 1970, p. 13 (quoted); interview with Duky; NYT, 8 July 1970, p. 10.) In the early 1960s, Senegal's President Léopold Sédar Senghor was very hostile to the PAIGC and Cabral (whom he suspected of being a communist), but during the war his opinion changed to one of high respect for Cabrai and limited support for the PAIGC. See Chabal, Amilcar Cabrai, pp. 84-5 and Antunes, Nixon e Caetano, pp. 91-6.
155. Interviews with Peraza, Hechavarria, Candebat, Pérez Capdet and Pérez de León. 'Ayuda brindada' gives only two exact figures: ten doctors went in 1966, and there were eight doctors and seven nurses in the spring of 1972. The May 1972 military protocol between Cuba and the PAIGC stated that Cuba would maintain a medical mission of 17 members, including eight doctors. ('Protocole de asistencia técnica entre el partido comunista de Cuba y el Partido Africano para en Independiencia de Guinea Bissau y Cabo Verde', Conakry, 27 May 1972, appendix 1, CID-FAR.)
156. At Boké, two or three (Spadafora, Mihajlovic and possibly a third); one or two at Koundara; possibly half a dozen at Ziguinchor.
157. Chabal, Amilcar Cabral, pp. 120-1; Rudebeck, Guinea-Bissau, pp. 186-201 (the best discussion of PAIGC medical care). According to Dhada, by 1972 the PAIGC had eleven native doctors and twelve foreign doctors; unlike Chabal and Rudeback, he gives a total number of Cuban doctors who served with the PAIGC: from 1965/6 to 1973, he writes, Cuba sent 'a dozen volunteer doctors'. (Warriors, pp. 61-72, 95, 115, 185 [quoted], 187-96).
158. Chabal, Amilcar Cabral, pp. 120-1; Rudebeck, Guinea-Bissau, pp. 186-201 (the best discussion of PAIGC medical care). According to Dhada, by 1972 the PAIGC had eleven native doctors and twelve foreign doctors; unlike Chabal and Rudeback, he gives a total number of Cuban doctors who served with the PAIGC: from 1965/6 to 1973, he writes, Cuba sent 'a dozen volunteer doctors'. (Warriors, pp. 61-72, 95, 115, 185 [quoted], 187-96).
159. Chabal, Amilcar Cabral, pp. 120-1; Rudebeck, Guinea-Bissau, pp. 186-201 (the best discussion of PAIGC medical care). According to Dhada, by 1972 the PAIGC had eleven native doctors and twelve foreign doctors; unlike Chabal and Rudeback, he gives a total number of Cuban doctors who served with the PAIGC: from 1965/6 to 1973, he writes, Cuba sent 'a dozen volunteer doctors'. (Warriors, pp. 61-72, 95, 115, 185 [quoted], 187-96).
160. The next four paragraphs are based on interviews with two of the doctors
161. Interview with Duky.
162. I have no exact figure for the number of Guinea nurses in 1974. According to Rudebeck, there were twenty-five fully trained nurses and 215 nurses' aides in 1972 (Rudebeck, Guinea-Bissau, p. 199). Two years after the war, Nõ Pintcha reported that there were 38 nurses and 254 nurses' aides in the country (Nõ Pintcha, 19 Oct. 1976, P-8).
163. I have no exact figure for the number of Guinea nurses in 1974. According to Rudebeck, there were twenty-five fully trained nurses and 215 nurses' aides in 1972 (Rudebeck, Guinea-Bissau, p. 199). Two years after the war, Nõ Pintcha reported that there were 38 nurses and 254 nurses' aides in the country (Nõ Pintcha, 19 Oct. 1976, P-8).
164. Their abbreviated CVs: Domingos da Silvas. MD (Moscow, 1968); in Boké (1968-72); in Belgrade (1972 4). Silvano Lopes Rodrigues. MD (Moscow, 1968); in Guinea-Bissau (1968-72); in Belgrade (1972-4). Paulo Medina. MD (Moscow, 1969); in Boké (1969-72); in Belgrade, (1972-4). Fernando Cabrai. MD (Moscow, 1969); in Boké (1969-72); in Sweden (1972-4). Venancio Furtado. MD (Moscow, 1970); in Guinea-Bissau (1971-4, except for eight months in Boké). António Tamba Nhaque. MD (Moscow, 1971); in Koundara and Boké (1971-4). Jaime Nandaia. MD (Moscow, 1971); in Guinea-Bissau (1971-4). Sabino José Dias. MD (Moscow, 1972); in Koundara (1972-4). Gaudêncio de Sousa Carvahlo. Dentist (Sofia, 1971); in Boké (1971-4). Ernesto Lopes Moreira. Physician's assistant (Kiev, 1969); in Koundara (1970): in Guinea-Bissau (1971-2); in Donietsk (1973-9). Paulo Alves. Physician's assistant (Sofia, 1969); in Boké and Koundara (1970-2); in Sofia (1972-9). Eduardo Kokane. Physician's assistant (Kiev, 1969); in Koundara (1970-4). Paulo Mendes. Physician's assistant (Sofia, 1970); in Koundara (1971); in Guinea-Bissau (1972-4). Juana Inacia Gomes. Physician's assistant (Kiev, 1969); in Boké (1970-4).
165. Interview with Francisca Pereira.
166. In my interviews, I asked all the Cubans who participated in missions abroad about the issues discussed here. In order to avoid long, repetitive notes, I identify the interviewee only when there is a direct quote or when I am dealing with an arcane issue.
167. After realising that there were many mulattoes as well as white-skinned Cape Verdeans in Guinea-Bissau, the Cubans relaxed the policy somewhat.
168. Interview with Montero.
169. Interview with Cardenas.
170. Lieutenant Radames Sánchez Bejerano to Raúl Castro, Havana, 23 Oct. 1965, PCH; Félix Bartiento to Fidel Castro, Havana, 7 Feb. 1967, PCH.
171. Interview with Montera.
172. Interview with Estrada.
173. Interview with Cárdenas.
174. Interview with Dreke.
175. Interviews with Dreke and Estrada. Conchita was her nom de guerre in Cuba. A second woman, the Argentine Isabel Larguía - 'a very brave woman, strong and dedicated' - visited Guinea-Bissau in March-April 1967 as part of a three-person team from the Cuban film institute that was making a documentary on the war ('Diario de Vera', entries of 15 Mar., 22 Mar. [quoted] and 1 Apr. 1967; Isabel to Vera, 3 May 1967, PCH).
176. Interview with Hechavarría.
177. 'Diario de Vera' [entry of late 1967].
178. Interviews with Estrada (quoted), Montero, and Cárdenas.
179. Interview with Batista.
180. Conchita to Moya, Havana, 8 Aug. 1967, PCH.
181. Horacio to Vera, 31 Mar. 1967, PCH. Between June 1966 and June 1972 nine Cuban ships arrived at Conakry, at approximately eight-month intervals. (See 'Ayuda brindada', p. 15 and passim.)
182. Interview with René Hernández Gatorno.
183. Interviews with Dreke (quoted), Vidiaux and Montera; Dreke to ist Lt. Ulisis, 12 Dec. 1969, PCH.
184. See enclosure in Dreke to Vice-Ministro para el Trab. Pol., 8 Dec. 1969, PCH; interviews with volunteers.
185. Interview with Montera. Two of the volunteers I interviewed returned to Cuba for health reasons: Eduardo Torres Ferrer, who was gravely ill, in 1967 and Luis Mario Burgos, who had been seriously wounded, in 1968.
186. Interview with Dreke.
187. Interview with Darío Urra.
188. Interview with Montero.
189. Interviews with Hechavarria, Pina, and Torres Ferrer, Cuban volunteers who served in the north.
190. Until 1971 they received no monthly stipend but when their mission was over they received presents worth $50-60. Those Cubans who were assigned to the MMCG in Guinée received their stipend every month from the outset.
191. Quotation from interview with Pina. When the prices were lower, the committee went to Las Palmas in the Canary Islands to buy the presents. They would fly, and their purchases would be brought to Conakry by one of the Cuban fishing ships off the coast of Mauritania.
192. Interview with Martínez Vaillant; confirmed by interviews with Cosme Mesa Barrero, Félix Veliz Hernández and Batista, all of whom had served on the committees.
193. Interviews with Pina and Hechavarría.
194. Quotations from interviews with Montero and Pérez de León.
195. MINFAR, list of dead with biographical notes, n.d., ACC. One doctor, the surgeon Miguel Angel Zerquera, died of malaria in Guinea-Bissau in April 1971.
196. Diário de Notícias: 21 Nov. 1969, pp. 1-2 quoted; 24 Nov. 1969, p. 5 and 28 Nov. 1969, p. 5; 'Las misiones', p. 22. The previous July the Portuguese secret police (PIDE) had lamented, 'we have long had information about the presence of Cubans among the terrorists of the PAIGC, but until now it has not been possible to capture one of them'. (PIDE report of 10 July 1969, in Castanheira, Quem?, p. 60).
197. Diário de Notícias: 21 Nov. 1969, pp. 1-2 quoted; 24 Nov. 1969, p. 5 and 28 Nov. 1969, p. 5; 'Las misiones', p. 22. The previous July the Portuguese secret police (PIDE) had lamented, 'we have long had information about the presence of Cubans among the terrorists of the PAIGC, but until now it has not been possible to capture one of them'. (PIDE report of 10 July 1969, in Castanheira, Quem?, p. 60).
198. Diário de Notícias: 21 Nov. 1969, pp. 1-2 quoted; 24 Nov. 1969, p. 5 and 28 Nov. 1969, p. 5; 'Las misiones', p. 22. The previous July the Portuguese secret police (PIDE) had lamented, 'we have long had information about the presence of Cubans among the terrorists of the PAIGC, but until now it has not been possible to capture one of them'. (PIDE report of 10 July 1969, in Castanheira, Quem?, p. 60).
199. Falcón [Montero] to Vera [Vidiaux], 3 Jan. 1970, PCH. No other Cubans were captured in Africa until early November 1975 in Angola.
200. NYT, 27 Apr. 1971, p. 13. For Rodriguez Peralta's own account, see Juan Carlos Fernández (ed.), Varios Testimonios Policiales (Havana, 1980), pp. 162-85. See also 'Pedro Peralta: a história de um processo', Expresso, 14 Sept. 1974, pp. 5-6.
201. NYT, 27 Apr. 1971, p. 13. For Rodriguez Peralta's own account, see Juan Carlos Fernández (ed.), Varios Testimonios Policiales (Havana, 1980), pp. 162-85. See also 'Pedro Peralta: a história de um processo', Expresso, 14 Sept. 1974, pp. 5-6.
202. NYT, 27 Apr. 1971, p. 13. For Rodriguez Peralta's own account, see Juan Carlos Fernández (ed.), Varios Testimonios Policiales (Havana, 1980), pp. 162-85. See also 'Pedro Peralta: a história de um processo', Expresso, 14 Sept. 1974, pp. 5-6.
203. Interview with Cárdenas. My research confirms the silence of the Cuban press. Rodríguez Peralta's sister, Elsa, spent several months in Portugal visiting her brother in jail; her expenses were paid by the Cuban government (Diário de Notícias, 23 Apr. 1971, p. 4; Granma, 17 Sept. 1974, p. 1). The government also sent Cuba's foremost orthopaedic surgeon, Julio Martínez Paez, to operate on Rodriguez Peralta's arm, which had not recovered from a wound, but the Portuguese authorities refused permission for the operation (Granma, 16 Sept. 1974, p. 6).
204. Interview with Cárdenas. My research confirms the silence of the Cuban press. Rodríguez Peralta's sister, Elsa, spent several months in Portugal visiting her brother in jail; her expenses were paid by the Cuban government (Diário de Notícias, 23 Apr. 1971, p. 4; Granma, 17 Sept. 1974, p. 1). The government also sent Cuba's foremost orthopaedic surgeon, Julio Martínez Paez, to operate on Rodriguez Peralta's arm, which had not recovered from a wound, but the Portuguese authorities refused permission for the operation (Granma, 16 Sept. 1974, p. 6).
205. Interview with Cárdenas. My research confirms the silence of the Cuban press. Rodríguez Peralta's sister, Elsa, spent several months in Portugal visiting her brother in jail; her expenses were paid by the Cuban government (Diário de Notícias, 23 Apr. 1971, p. 4; Granma, 17 Sept. 1974, p. 1). The government also sent Cuba's foremost orthopaedic surgeon, Julio Martínez Paez, to operate on Rodriguez Peralta's arm, which had not recovered from a wound, but the Portuguese authorities refused permission for the operation (Granma, 16 Sept. 1974, p. 6).
206. Granma, 10 Sept. 1974, p. 1 (quoted); 11 Sept. 1974, p. 1; 16 Sept. 1974, p. 6; 17 Sept. 1974, P. I.
207. Granma, 24 Jan. 1977, p. 6 and 25 Jan. 1977, p. 1.
208. Nõ Pintcha, 22 Jan. 1977, pp. 4-6. See also Nõ Pintcha: 20 Jan. 1977, p. I; 27 Jan. 1977, p. 6; 1 Feb. 1977, p. 2.
209. Nõ Pintcha, 22 Jan. 1977, pp. 4-6. See also Nõ Pintcha: 20 Jan. 1977, p. I; 27 Jan. 1977, p. 6; 1 Feb. 1977, p. 2.
210. Interviews with Cárdenas and Risquet.
211. Interview with Risquer. While in Conakry, Castro made a brief unscheduled visit to Freetown at the invitation of Sierra Leone's President Siaka Stevens. (See Granma, 8 May 1972, p. 1 and 13 May 1972, p. 5; and Daily Mail (Freetown), 5 May 1972, p. 1 and 9 May 1972, p. 8.)
212. Interview with Risquer. While in Conakry, Castro made a brief unscheduled visit to Freetown at the invitation of Sierra Leone's President Siaka Stevens. (See Granma, 8 May 1972, p. 1 and 13 May 1972, p. 5; and Daily Mail (Freetown), 5 May 1972, p. 1 and 9 May 1972, p. 8.)
213. Hughes (INR) to SecState, 'Focus on Portuguese Guinea', 16 Aug. 1963, pp. 7-8, SP, box WH-1, JFKL.
214. Interviews with Estrada and Cárdenas.
215. Bah Ibrahima, 'Relaciones Guinea-Cuba', Havana, Instituto Superior de Relaciones Internacionales (1991), p. 33; interviews with Oramas and Bangaly, the director of the Western Hemisphere division of the Foreign Ministry of Guinée.
216. Interviews with Aboukabar Sidiki and Safayo Ba who went in 1972, Moussa Beavogui and Mamoudou Diallo who went in 1973, and Mohamed Sadialiou Sow and Sékou Sylla who went in 1974. The pattern was the same for the three groups; after spending an academic year at the language school of Siboney, in Havana, most went to the university, a few to technical schools. Cuba bore all the expenses: transportation, board, lodging, clothing and a monthly stipend.
217. Declassified documents from the secret police archives in Lisbon reveal that the Portuguese and French secret services were planning an operation to overthrow Touré. 'Operation Safira' was scheduled for June 1974, but the Portuguese dictatorship was overthrown the previous April. ('PIDE e SEDEC teriam elaborado as grandes linhas de acção', Expresso, 24 Jan. 1976, pp. 14-15.)
218. Interviews with Bangaly, Oramas and Manuel Medina, deputy commander of the MMCG in 1973-4. The Cubans also began providing some training to the militia, which Sékou Touré had revived after the November 1970 attack (Granma, 8 May 1972, p. 1; interviews with Galarza, Martínez Vaillant and Manuel Medina). In 1973-4, the Portuguese, fearing that Guinée's MIGs might be used on behalf of the PAIGC in Guinea-Bissau, purchased Crotals from France and ordered Red-Eye missiles from Israel. (See Colonel Casanova Ferreira in Manuel Bernardo (ed.), Marcello e Spinola. A ruptura (Lisbon, 1994), pp. 374-5 and Antunes, Nixon e Caetano, pp. 281-304.) This gave birth to the canard that 'Nigerian pilots [on behalf of the PAIGC] flew MIG-17 reconnaissance flights over the colony [Guinea-Bissau] from 1971 onwards'. (Ian Beckett, 'The Portuguese Army', in Beckett and John Pimlott (eds.), Armed Forces and Modern Counter-Insurgency (New York, 1985), p. 140.) All the PAIGC officials interviewed for this essay confirmed that there were no Nigerian planes or pilots. The planes were Touré's MIGs and the pilots were Cubans.
219. Interviews with Bangaly, Oramas and Manuel Medina, deputy commander of the MMCG in 1973-4. The Cubans also began providing some training to the militia, which Sékou Touré had revived after the November 1970 attack (Granma, 8 May 1972, p. 1; interviews with Galarza, Martínez Vaillant and Manuel Medina). In 1973-4, the Portuguese, fearing that Guinée's MIGs might be used on behalf of the PAIGC in Guinea-Bissau, purchased Crotals from France and ordered Red-Eye missiles from Israel. (See Colonel Casanova Ferreira in Manuel Bernardo (ed.), Marcello e Spinola. A ruptura (Lisbon, 1994), pp. 374-5 and Antunes, Nixon e Caetano, pp. 281-304.) This gave birth to the canard that 'Nigerian pilots [on behalf of the PAIGC] flew MIG-17 reconnaissance flights over the colony [Guinea-Bissau] from 1971 onwards'. (Ian Beckett, 'The Portuguese Army', in Beckett and John Pimlott (eds.), Armed Forces and Modern Counter-Insurgency (New York, 1985), p. 140.) All the PAIGC officials interviewed for this essay confirmed that there were no Nigerian planes or pilots. The planes were Touré's MIGs and the pilots were Cubans.
220. Interviews with Bangaly, Oramas and Manuel Medina, deputy commander of the MMCG in 1973-4. The Cubans also began providing some training to the militia, which Sékou Touré had revived after the November 1970 attack (Granma, 8 May 1972, p. 1; interviews with Galarza, Martínez Vaillant and Manuel Medina). In 1973-4, the Portuguese, fearing that Guinée's MIGs might be used on behalf of the PAIGC in Guinea-Bissau, purchased Crotals from France and ordered Red-Eye missiles from Israel. (See Colonel Casanova Ferreira in Manuel Bernardo (ed.), Marcello e Spinola. A ruptura (Lisbon, 1994), pp. 374-5 and Antunes, Nixon e Caetano, pp. 281-304.) This gave birth to the canard that 'Nigerian pilots [on behalf of the PAIGC] flew MIG-17 reconnaissance flights over the colony [Guinea-Bissau] from 1971 onwards'. (Ian Beckett, 'The Portuguese Army', in Beckett and John Pimlott (eds.), Armed Forces and Modern Counter-Insurgency (New York, 1985), p. 140.) All the PAIGC officials interviewed for this essay confirmed that there were no Nigerian planes or pilots. The planes were Touré's MIGs and the pilots were Cubans.
221. Interviews with Bangaly, Oramas and Manuel Medina, deputy commander of the MMCG in 1973-4. The Cubans also began providing some training to the militia, which Sékou Touré had revived after the November 1970 attack (Granma, 8 May 1972, p. 1; interviews with Galarza, Martínez Vaillant and Manuel Medina). In 1973-4, the Portuguese, fearing that Guinée's MIGs might be used on behalf of the PAIGC in Guinea-Bissau, purchased Crotals from France and ordered Red-Eye missiles from Israel. (See Colonel Casanova Ferreira in Manuel Bernardo (ed.), Marcello e Spinola. A ruptura (Lisbon, 1994), pp. 374-5 and Antunes, Nixon e Caetano, pp. 281-304.) This gave birth to the canard that 'Nigerian pilots [on behalf of the PAIGC] flew MIG-17 reconnaissance flights over the colony [Guinea-Bissau] from 1971 onwards'. (Ian Beckett, 'The Portuguese Army', in Beckett and John Pimlott (eds.), Armed Forces and Modern Counter-Insurgency (New York, 1985), p. 140.) All the PAIGC officials interviewed for this essay confirmed that there were no Nigerian planes or pilots. The planes were Touré's MIGs and the pilots were Cubans.
222. Cabrai, Crónica, p. 433.
223. Quotations from Marcello Caetano, Depoimento (Rio de Janeiro, 1974), p. 179 and Fabiào, 'A descolonização', p. 310.
224. Quotations from Marcello Caetano, Depoimento (Rio de Janeiro, 1974), p. 179 and Fabiào, 'A descolonização', p. 310.
225. António de Spínola, País sem rumbo: Contributo para a História de uma Revolução (Lisbon, 1978), pp. 53-4.
226. Otelo Saraiva de Carvalho, Alvorada em Abril (Lisbon, 1984), pp. 107-8. (Carvalho served in Guinea-Bissau in 1971-3.)
227. Estado-Maior do Exército, Comissão para o Estudo das Campanhas de Africa (1964-1974), Resenha Histórico-Militar das Campanhas de África (Lisbon, 1988), vol. I, P. 119.
228. MINFAR, 'Realizatión de la Operatión "Amilcar Cabrai"', p. 35 [1974], CID-FAR (hereafter 'Realización'). For a vivid account by a Portuguese officer of the diversionary offensive in the north, see Salgueiro Maia, Capitão de abril. Histórias da guerra do ultramar e do 25 de Abril (Lisbon, 1994), pp. 63-9.
229. MINFAR, 'Realizatión de la Operatión "Amilcar Cabrai"', p. 35 [1974], CID-FAR (hereafter 'Realización'). For a vivid account by a Portuguese officer of the diversionary offensive in the north, see Salgueiro Maia, Capitão de abril. Histórias da guerra do ultramar e do 25 de Abril (Lisbon, 1994), pp. 63-9.
230. Carmo Vicente, Gadamael (Lisbon, 1985), p. 95.
231. 'Realización', p. 90. See also Vicente, Gadamael, pp. 93-110 and Richard Lobban, 'The Fall of Guiledje', Africa (August 1973) pp. 36-7.
232. 'Realización', p. 90. See also Vicente, Gadamael, pp. 93-110 and Richard Lobban, 'The Fall of Guiledje', Africa (August 1973) pp. 36-7.
233. 'Realización', p. 90. See also Vicente, Gadamael, pp. 93-110 and Richard Lobban, 'The Fall of Guiledje', Africa (August 1973) pp. 36-7.
234. United Nations General Assembly, 'Report of the Special Mission Established by the Special Committee at its 840th Meeting on 14 March 1972', UN document A/AC. 109/L.804, 3 July 1972, p. 19.
235. United Nations General Assembly, Official Records, 27th sess., Plenary Meeting, 14 Nov. 1972, 10:30am.
236. The murder plot remains murky. For speculative theories see Castanheira, Quem? For straightforward accounts on the basis of the existing evidence see Chabal, Amilcar Cabrai, pp. 132-43 and Antunes, Nixon e Caetano, pp. 249-50. Also useful was the secret report of the PAIGC's internal investigation: Fidelis Cabrai, 'Relatório-Comissão de Inquerito', Conakry, 9 June 1973, private collection, Bissau.
237. The murder plot remains murky. For speculative theories see Castanheira, Quem? For straightforward accounts on the basis of the existing evidence see Chabal, Amilcar Cabrai, pp. 132-43 and Antunes, Nixon e Caetano, pp. 249-50. Also useful was the secret report of the PAIGC's internal investigation: Fidelis Cabrai, 'Relatório-Comissão de Inquerito', Conakry, 9 June 1973, private collection, Bissau.
238. The murder plot remains murky. For speculative theories see Castanheira, Quem? For straightforward accounts on the basis of the existing evidence see Chabal, Amilcar Cabrai, pp. 132-43 and Antunes, Nixon e Caetano, pp. 249-50. Also useful was the secret report of the PAIGC's internal investigation: Fidelis Cabrai, 'Relatório-Comissão de Inquerito', Conakry, 9 June 1973, private collection, Bissau.
239. Nõ Pintcha, 17 Sept. 1977, p. 5.
240. Nõ Pintcha, Sept. 1976 (special issue), p. 15.
241. United Nations General Assembly, Official Records, 28th sess., Plenary Meeting, 2 Nov. 1973, 10:30 am, pp. 5-15.
242. United Nations General Assembly, Official Records, 28th sess., Plenary Meeting, 22 Oct. 1973, 10:30 am, p. 7.
243. Spínola, País, pp. 53-63 ; quotations from Spínola to Silva Cunha (Ministro do Ultramar), 22 May 1973, ibid., p. 57 and Spínola to Silva Cunha, 9 June 1973, ibid., p. 62. See also Joaquim da Silva Cunha, O Ultramar, a nação e o 25 de Abril' (Coimbra, 1977), pp. 52-6 .
244. Spínola, País, pp. 53-63 ; quotations from Spínola to Silva Cunha (Ministro do Ultramar), 22 May 1973, ibid., p. 57 and Spínola to Silva Cunha, 9 June 1973, ibid., p. 62. See also Joaquim da Silva Cunha, O Ultramar, a nação e o 25 de Abril' (Coimbra, 1977), pp. 52-6 .
245. Spínola, País, pp. 53-63 ; quotations from Spínola to Silva Cunha (Ministro do Ultramar), 22 May 1973, ibid., p. 57 and Spínola to Silva Cunha, 9 June 1973, ibid., p. 62. See also Joaquim da Silva Cunha, O Ultramar, a nação e o 25 de Abril' (Coimbra, 1977), pp. 52-6 .
246. Spínola, País, pp. 53-63 ; quotations from Spínola to Silva Cunha (Ministro do Ultramar), 22 May 1973, ibid., p. 57 and Spínola to Silva Cunha, 9 June 1973, ibid., p. 62. See also Joaquim da Silva Cunha, O Ultramar, a nação e o 25 de Abril' (Coimbra, 1977), pp. 52-6 .
247. 'Realización', p. 92.
248. Lars Rudebeck, 'Some Facts and Observations on Relations between the Nordic Countries and the Officially Portuguese-Speaking Countries of Africa', in Bernhard Weimer (ed.), 'Die Afrikanischen Staaten Portugiesischer Sprache: Interne Entwicklungdynamik. und internationale Beziehungen', (Ebenhausen, 1986), pp. 119-26, p. 123 quoted. See also Cabral, Crónica, pp. 333-6.
249. Lars Rudebeck, 'Some Facts and Observations on Relations between the Nordic Countries and the Officially Portuguese-Speaking Countries of Africa', in Bernhard Weimer (ed.), 'Die Afrikanischen Staaten Portugiesischer Sprache: Interne Entwicklungdynamik. und internationale Beziehungen', (Ebenhausen, 1986), pp. 119-26, p. 123 quoted. See also Cabral, Crónica, pp. 333-6.
250. In 1969 there were thirty-six Guineans studying in Cuba; most had arrived in 1967. ('Relación de becarios de Africa que cursan estudios en nuestro país', 4 Dec. 1969, unpaginated, PCH.) Scattered interviews indicate that many others went to Cuba before the end of the war. Twelve went in 1968 (interview with Ariette Cabral, a PAIGC official who was with them on the ship), seventeen went in September 1973 (interview with Félix Mandjam Sambú, a member of the group.)
251. Nõ Pintcha, 9 Oct. 1976, p. 1.
252. On Cuba and Algeria, see Gleijeses, 'Cuba's First Venture'.
253. The Cubans sent their troops to Angola On their own initiative and without consulting us', writes Anatoly Dobrynin, former Soviet ambassador to the United States (In Confidence: Moscow's Ambassador to America's Six Cold War Presidents (New York, 1995), p. 362. See also Arkady Shevchenko, Breaking with Moscow (New York, 1985), PP. 271-2).
254. The Cubans sent their troops to Angola On their own initiative and without consulting us', writes Anatoly Dobrynin, former Soviet ambassador to the United States (In Confidence: Moscow's Ambassador to America's Six Cold War Presidents (New York, 1995), p. 362. See also Arkady Shevchenko, Breaking with Moscow (New York, 1985), PP. 271-2).
255. See CIA, Directorate of Intelligence, weekly reports, 'The Situation in the Congo', 10 Mar. 1965, pp. 5-6, 31 Mar. 1965, p. 4, and 14 Apr. 1965, p. 4, all in NSFCF: Congo, box 87, LBJL; CIA, Office of Current Intelligence, 'Tanzanian Support for the Congo Rebels', 7 Apr. 1965, p. 4, ibid.
256. See CIA, Directorate of Intelligence, weekly reports, 'The Situation in the Congo', 10 Mar. 1965, pp. 5-6, 31 Mar. 1965, p. 4, and 14 Apr. 1965, p. 4, all in NSFCF: Congo, box 87, LBJL; CIA, Office of Current Intelligence, 'Tanzanian Support for the Congo Rebels', 7 Apr. 1965, p. 4, ibid.
257. Rafael [Oscar Fernández Padilla] to Tatu, 4 Nov. 1965, ACC. See also Che Guevara, 'Pasajes de la guerra revolucionaria (Congo)' [Dar-es-Salaam, late 1965], pp. 118-19, PCH.
258. Hughes (INR) to SecState, 'Che Guevara's African Venture', 19 Apr. 1965, pp. 1-2, NSFCF: Cuba, box 20, LBJL.
259. Interview with Turpin.
260. Interviews with Torres Ferrer (Coqui) and Hechavarría.
261. Pastor to Brzezinski, 21 Sept. 1979, White House Central File, box CO-21, Jimmy Carter Library.
262. George Ball, The Past Has Another Pattern: Memoirs (New York, 1982), p. 374.
263. Nõ Pintcha, 29 Nov. 1975, p. 5.
264. Interviews with Borges (quoted) and Pina.
265. Cabral, pp. 305-6.
266. Nõ Pintcha, June 1980, P. 3.