The impact of clergy-perpetrated sexual abuse: The role of gender, development, and posttraumatic stress

Journal of Child Sexual Abuse

Volumn 17, Issue 3-4, 2008, Pages 329-358

  Fogler, Jason M ^a,f   Shipherd, Jillian C ^b,c   Clarke, Stephanie ^d   Jensen, Jennifer ^b   Rowe, Erin ^e  

^a Brookline Community Mental Health Center   (United States)

^b National Center for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder   (United States)

^c BOSTON UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^d UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA   (United States)

^e NORTHEASTERN UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^f Brookline Center   (United States)

Author keywords

Clergy; Development; Gender; PTSD; Sexual abuse; Trauma

Indexed keywords

CLERGY; COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT; DEVELOPMENT; HUMAN; INJURY; MATURATION; PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT; POSTTRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER; PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT; REVIEW; SEXUAL ABUSE; SURVIVOR; ADULT; CHILD; CHILD ABUSE; EGO DEVELOPMENT; FEMALE; HUMAN RELATION; MALE; MENTAL HEALTH; PEDOPHILIA; PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT; RELIGION; SEX RATIO; SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT; STATISTICS; UNITED STATES; VICTIM;

ADULT; ADULT SURVIVORS OF CHILD ABUSE; CATHOLICISM; CHILD; CRIME VICTIMS; FEMALE; HUMANS; INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS; MALE; MENTAL HEALTH; PEDOPHILIA; PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT; SEX DISTRIBUTION; SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT; STRESS DISORDERS, POST-TRAUMATIC; UNITED STATES;

EID: 58149343405     PISSN: 10538712     EISSN: 15470679     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/10538710802329940     Document Type: Review

References (119)

1. Alaggia, R. (2001). Cultural and religious influences in maternal response to intrafamilial child sexual abuse: Charting new territory for research and treatment. Journal of Child Sexual Abuse, 10, 41-60.
2. American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed., text rev.). Washington DC: Author.
3. Bera, W. H. (1995). Clergy sexual abuse and male survivors: A study of stress and coping among 25 men abused by the same minister during their adolescence. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN.
4. Blanchard, E. B., Hickling, E. J., Devineni, T., Veazey, C. H., Galovski, T. E., Mundy, E., et al. (2003). A controlled evaluation of cognitive behavioral therapy for posttrau-matic stress in motor vehicle accident survivors. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 41, 79-96.
5. Bohn, D. K. (2003). Lifetime physical and sexual abuse, substance abuse, depression, and suicide attempts among Native American women. Issues in Mental Health Nursing, 24, 333-352.
6. Bolton, F. G., Jr., Morris, L. A., & MacEachron, A. E. (1989). Males at risk: The other side of child sexual abuse. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.
7. Bonosky, N. (1995). Boundary violations in social work supervision: Clinical, educational, and legal implications. The Clinical Supervisor, 13, 79-95.
8. Bradley, R., Greene, J., Russ, E., Dutra, L., & Westen, D. (2005). A multidimensionl meta-analysis of psychotherapy for PTSD. American Journal of Psychiatry, 162, 214-227.
9. Brooks-Gunn, J. (1991). How stressful is the transition to adolescence for girls? In M. E. Colten & S. Gore (Eds.), Adolescent stress: Causes and consequences (pp. 131-149). New York: Aldine De Gruyter.
10. Casey, R. (1993). Children's emotional experience: Relations among expression, self-report, and understanding. Developmental Psychology, 29, 119-129.
11. Celenza, A. (2004). Sexual misconduct in the clergy: The search for the Father. Studies in Gender and Sexuality, 5, 213-232.
12. Chodorow, N. (1974). Family structure and feminine personality. In M. Z. Rosaldo & L. Lamphere (Eds.), Women, culture, and society (pp. 81-105). Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
13. Christian Ethics Today: Journal of Christian Ethics. (2000, October). Special issue on clergy sexual abuse. Retrieved April 13, 2005, from www.christianethicstoday.com.
14. Chu, J. A. (1998). Rebuilding shattered lives: The responsible treatment of complex post-traumatic and dissociative disorders. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
15. Cicchetti, D., & Lynch, M. (1993). Toward an ecological/transactional model of community violence and child maltreatment: Consequences for children's development. Psychiatry, 56, 96-118.
16. Cloitre, M., Koenen, K. C., Cohen, L. R., & Han, H. (2002). Skills training in affective and interpersonal regulation followed by exposure: A phase-based treatment for PTSD related to childhood abuse. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 70(5), 1067-1074.
17. Cohen, J. A., Berliner, L., & March, J. S. (2000). Treatment of children and adolescents. In E. Foa, T. Keane, & M. Friedman (Eds.), Effective treatments for PTSD (pp. 106-138). New York: Guilford Press.
18. Courtois, C. A. (1988). Healing the incest wound: Adult survivors in therapy. New York: W. W. Norton & Company.
19. Desai, S., Arias, I., Thompson, M. P., & Basile, K. C. (2002). Childhood victimization and subsequent adult revictimization assessed in a nationally representative sample of women and men. Violence and Victims, 17(6), 639-653.
20. Dickstein, L. J., Hinz, L. D., & Eth, S. (1991). Treatment of sexually abused children and adolescents. In A. Tasman & S. M. Goldfinger (Eds.), American Psychiatric Press review of psychiatry (Vol. 10, pp. 345-366). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.
21. Disch, E., & Avery, N. (2001). Sex in the consulting room, the examining room, and the sacristy: Survivors of sexual abuse by professionals. American Journal of Orthopsy-chiatry, 71(2), 204-217.
22. Duncan, D. F. (1996). Growing up under the gun: Children and adolescents coping with violent neighborhoods. Journal of Primary Prevention, 16, 343-356.
23. Erikson, E. H. (1950/1985). Childhood and society (35th anniversary ed.). New York: Wiley.
24. Farrell, D. P., & Taylor, M. (1999). Sexual abuse by clergy and the implications for survivors. Changes-An International Journal of Psychology and Psychotherapy, 17(1), 52-59.
25. Farrell, D. P., & Taylor, M. (2000). Silenced by God: An examination of unique characteristics within sexual abuse by clergy. Counselling Psychology Review, 15(1), 22-31.
26. Feiring, C., Taska, L., & Lewis, M. (2002). Adjustment following sexual abuse discovery: The role of shame and attributional style. Developmental Psychology, 38, 79-82.
27. Felitti, V. S. (1991). Long term medical consequences of incest, rape and molestation. Southern Medical Journal, 84(3), 328-331.
28. Finkelhor, D. (1986). A sourcebook on child sexual abuse. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications.
29. Finkelhor, D. (1993). Epidemiological factors in the clinical identification of child sexual abuse. Child Abuse and Neglect, 17, 67-70.
30. Finkelhor, D., & Berliner, L. (1995). Research on the treatment of sexually abused children: A review and recommendations. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 34(11), 1408-1423.
31. Fishburn, J. (1982). Male clergy adultery as vocational confusion. Christian Century, 922.
32. Flynn, K. A. (2000). Clergy sexual abuse of women: A specialized form of trauma. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Claremont Graduate University, Claremont, California.
33. Foa, E. B., Dancu, C. V., Hembree, E. A., Jaycox, L. H., Meadows, E. A., & Street, G. P. (1999). A comparison of exposure therapy, stress inoculation training, and their combination for reducing post-traumatic stress disorder in female assault victims. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 67(2), 194-200.
34. Foa, E. B., Rothbaum, B. O., Riggs, D. S., & Murdock, T. B. (1991). Treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder in rape victims: A comparison between cognitive-behavioral procedures and counseling. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 59(5), 715-723.
35. Fogler, J. M., Shipherd, J. C., Rowe, E., Jensen, J., & Clarke, S. (2008). A theoretical foundation for understanding clergy-perpetrated sexual abuse. Journal of Child Sexual Abuse, 17(3-4), 301-328.
36. Fortune, M. (1989). Is nothing sacred? When sex invades the pastoral relationship. San Francisco: Harper & Row.
37. Franz, T. (2002). Power, patriarchy, and sexual abuse in the Christian church. Traumatology, 8, 1-12.
38. Friedman, M. J., Davidson, J. R., Mellman, T. A., & Southwick, S. M. (2000). Pharmaco-therapy. In E. Foa, T. Keane, & M. Friedman (Eds.), Effective treatments for PTSD (pp. 84-105). New York: Guilford Press.
39. Friedrich, W. N. (1996). An integrated model of psychotherapy for abused children. In J. N. Briere, L. Berliner, J. A. Bulkley, C. Jenny, & T. Reid (Eds.), The APSAC handbook on child maltreatment (1st ed., pp. 104-118). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
40. Friedrich, W. N., Urquiza, A. J., & Beilke, R. L. (1986). Behavior problems in sexually abused young children. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 11(1), 47-57.
41. Garnefski, N., & Diekstra, R. F. W. (1997). Child sexual abuse and emotional and behavioral problems in adolescence: Gender differences. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36(3), 323-329.
42. Gilligan, C. (1982). In a different voice. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
43. Gold, S. N., Elhai, J. D., Lucenko, B. A., & Swingle, J. M. (1998). Abuse characteristics among childhood sexual abuse survivors in therapy: A gender comparison. Child Abuse and Neglect, 22, 1005-1012.
44. Golding, J. M. (1994). Sexual assault history and physical health in randomly selected Los Angeles women. Health Psychology, 13, 130-138.
45. Graber, J. A., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (1996). Transitions and turning points: Navigating the passage from childhood to adolescence. Developmental Psychology, 32, 768-776.
46. Hall, G. C. N., Teten, A. L., DeGarmo, D. S., Sue, S., & Stephens, K. A. (2005). Ethnicity, culture, and sexual aggression: Risk and protective factors. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 73, 830-840.
47. Hardman-Cromwell, Y. (1991). Power and sexual abuse in ministry. Journal of Religious Thought, 1, 65-72.
48. Harned, M. S. (2004). Does it matter what you call it? The relationship between labeling unwanted sexual experiences and distress. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 72, 1090-1099.
49. Harter, S., & Buddin, B. J. (1987). Children's understanding of the simultaneity of two emotions: A five-stage developmental acquisition sequence. Developmental Psychology, 23, 388-399.
50. Heath, V., Bean, R., & Feinauer, L. (1996). Severity of childhood sexual abuse: Symptom differences between men and women. American Journal of Family Therapy, 24, 305-314.
51. Herman, J. (1992). Trauma and recovery: The aftermath of violence - From domestic abuse to political terror. New York: Basic Books.
52. Herman, J. L., Russell, D. E. H., & Trocki, K. (1986). Long-term effects of incestuous abuse in childhood. American Journal of Psychiatry, 143(10), 1293-1296.
53. Hetherington, E. M., & Parke, R. D. (1993). Child psychology: A contemporary viewpoint (4th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
54. Holmes, G. R., Offen, L., & Waller, G. (1997). See no evil, hear no evil, speak no evil: Why do relatively few male victims of childhood sexual abuse receive help for abuse-related issues in adulthood? Clinical Psychology Review, 17(1), 69-88.
55. Holmes, W. C., & Slap, G. B. (1998). Sexual abuse of boys: Definition, prevalence, correlates, sequelae, and management. Journal of the American Medical Association, 280(21), 1855-1862.
56. Isely, P. J. (1996). In their own voices: A qualitative study of men sexually abused as children by catholic clergy. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Boston University School of Education, Boston, Massachusetts.
57. Isely, P. J., & Isely, P. (1990). The sexual abuse of male children by church personnel: Intervention and prevention. Pastoral Psychology, 39(2), 85-99.
58. The John Jay College Research Team. (2004, February 27). The nature and scope of the problem of sexual abuse of minors by Catholic priests and deacons in the United States: A research study conducted by the John Jay College of Criminal Justice (National Clergy Sex Abuse Report). Retrieved April 13, 2005, from www.jjay.cuny.edu/churchstudy/ main.asp.
59. Johnson, D. R. (2000). Creative therapies. In E. Foa, T. Keane, & M. Friedman (Eds.), Effective treatments for PTSD (pp. 302-314). New York: Guilford Press.
60. Keane, T. M., & Barlow, D. H. (2002). Post-traumatic stress disorder. In D. Barlow (Ed.), Anxiety and its disorders: The nature and treatment of anxiety and panic (2nd ed., pp. 418-453). New York: Guilford Press.
61. Keane, T. M., Weathers, F. W., & Foa, E. B. (2000). Diagnosis and assessment. In E. Foa, T. Keane, & M. Friedman (Eds.), Effective treatments for PTSD (pp. 18-36). New York: Guilford Press.
62. Kendall-Tackett, K. A., Williams, L. M., & Finkelhor, D. (1993). Impact of sexual abuse on children: A review and synthesis of recent empirical studies. Psychological Bulletin, 113(1), 164-180.
63. Kenny, M. C., & McEachern, A. G. (2000). Racial, ethnic, and cultural factors of childhood sexual abuse: A selected review of the literature. Clinical Psychology Review, 20, 905-922.
64. Kessler, B. L., & Bieschke, K. J. (1999). A retrospective analysis of shame, dissociation, and adult victimization in survivors of childhood sexual abuse. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 46, 335-341.
65. Kessler, R. C., Sonnega, A., Bromet, E., Hughes, M., & Nelson, C. B. (1995). Post-traumatic stress disorder in the National Comorbidity Survey. Archives of General Psychiatry, 52, 1048-1060.
66. Kia-Keating, M., Grossman, F. K., Sorsoli, L., & Epstein, M. (2005). Containing and resisting masculinity: Narratives of renegotiation among resilient male survivors of childhood sexual abuse. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 6, 169-185.
67. Lamb, S., & Edgar-Smith, S. (1994). Aspects of disclosure mediators of outcome of childhood sexual abuse. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 9, 307-326.
68. Lew, M. (1990). Victims no longer: Men recovering from incest and other sexual child abuse. New York: Harper Collins.
69. Linehan, M. M. (1993). Cognitive-behavioral treatment of borderline personality disorder. New York: Guilford Press.
70. Lothstein, L. M. (2002). Treating clergy who sexually abuse minors: A 16-year experience in the Professionals and Clergy Program at the IOL. Connecticut Psychologist, 56, 1, 4.
71. Lovett, B. B. (2004). Child sexual abuse disclosure: Maternal response and other variables impacting the victim. Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal, 21, 355-371.
72. Maker, A. H., Kemmelmeier, M., & Peterson, C. (2001). Child sexual abuse, peer sexual abuse, and sexual assault in adulthood: A multi-risk model of revictimization. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 14, 351-368.
73. Marx, B. P., Heidt, J. M., & Gold, S. D. (2005). Perceived uncontrollability and unpredictability, self-regulation, and revictimization. Review of General Psychology, 9, 67-90.
74. McFarlane, W. R. (2002). Multifamily groups in the treatment of severe psychiatric disorders. New York: Guilford.
75. McLaughlin, B. R. (1994). Devastated spirituality: The impact of clergy sexual abuse on the survivor's relationship with God and the Church. Sexual Addiction and Compulsivity, 1, 145-158.
76. Meadows, E. A., & Foa, E. B. (1998). Intrusion, arousal, and avoidance: Sexual trauma survivors. In V. M. Follette, J. I. Ruzek, & F. R. Abueg (Eds.), Cognitive-behavioral therapies for trauma (pp. 100-123). New York: Guilford.
77. Mennen, F. E. (1993). Evaluation of risk factors in childhood sexual abuse. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 32, 934-939.
78. Moffitt, T. E., Caspi, A., & Rutter, M. (2006). Measured gene-environment interactions in psychopathology: Concepts, research strategies, and implications for research, intervention, and public understanding of genetics. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 1, 5-27.
79. Murray-Swank, N. A., & Pargament, K. I. (2005). God, where are you? Evaluating a spiritually-integrated intervention for sexual abuse. Mental Health, Religion, & Culture, 8, 191-203.
80. Najavits, L. M. (2002). Seeking safety: A treatment manual for PTSD and substance abuse. New York: Guilford Press.
81. Neustein, A., & Lesher, M. (2008). A single-case study of rabbinic sexual abuse in the orthodox Jewish community. Journal of Child Sexual Abuse, 17(3-4), 270-289.
82. Nielsen, T. (1983, November). Sexual abuse of boys: Current perspectives. Personnel and Guidance Journal, 139-142.
83. Norris, F. H., Foster, J. D., & Weisshaar, D. L. (2002). The epidemiology of sex differences in PTSD across developmental societal and research contexts. In R. Kimerling, P. Ouimette, & J. Wolfe (Eds.), Gender and PTSD (pp. 3-42). New York: Guilford Press.
84. Osofsky, J. D., & Scheeringa, M. S. (1997). Community and domestic violence exposure: Effects on development and psychopathology. In D. Cicchetti & S.Toth (Eds.), Rochester Symposium on developmental psychopathology, (Vol. 8: Developmental perspectives on trauma: Theory, research, and intervention, pp. 155-180). Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press.
85. Paunovic, N., & Öst, L. G. (2001). Cognitive-behavior therapy vs exposure therapy in the treatment of PTSD in refugees. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 39, 1183-1197.
86. Pierce, R., & Pierce, L. H. (1985). The sexually abused child: A comparison of male and female victims. Child Abuse and Neglect, 9(2), 191-199.
87. Ponton, L., & Goldstein, D. (2004). Sexual abuse of boys by clergy. Adolescent Psychiatry: Developmental and Clinical Studies, 28, 209-229.
88. Pope, K. S., Levenson, H., & Schover, L. R. (1979). Sexual intimacy in psychology training: Results and implications of a national survey. American Psychologist, 34, 692-689.
89. Pope, K. S., Schover, L. R., & Levenson, H. (1980). Sexual behavior between clinical supervisors and trainees: Implications for professional standards. Professional Psychology, 11, 157-162.
90. Purvis, M., & Ward, T. (2006). The role of culture in understanding child sexual offending: Examining feminist perspectives. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 11, 298-312.
91. Pynoos, R. S., & Nader, K. (1993). Issues in the treatment of post-traumatic stress in children and adolescents. In J. P. Wilson & B. Raphael (Eds.), International handbook of traumatic stress syndromes (pp. 535-549). New York: Plenum Press.
92. Resick, P. A., & Calhoun, K. S. (2001). Post-traumatic stress disorder. In D. Barlow (Ed.), Clinical handbook of psychological disorders: A step-by-step treatment manual (3rd ed., pp. 60-113). New York: Guilford Press.
93. Resick, P. A., Nishith, P., & Griffin, M. G. (2003). How well does cognitive-behavioral therapy treat symptoms of complex PTSD? An examination of child sexual abuse survivors within a clinical trial. CNS Spectrums, 8, 340-355.
94. Resick, P. A., Nishith, P., Weaver, T. L., Astin, M. C., & Feuer, C. A. (2002). A comparison of cognitive-processing therapy with prolonged exposure and a waiting condition for the treatment of chronic posttraumatic stress disorder in female rape victims. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 70(4), 867-879.
95. Resick, P. A., & Schnicke, M. K. (1992). Cognitive processing therapy for sexual assault victims. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 60(5), 748-756.
96. Resick, P. A., & Schnicke, M. K. (1993). Cognitive processing therapy for rape victims: A treatment manual . Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.
97. Rheingold, A. A., Acierno, R., & Resnick, H. S. (2004). Trauma, post-traumatic stress disorder, and health risk behaviors. In P. P. Schnurr & B. L. Green (Eds.), Trauma and health: Physical health consequences of exposure to extreme stress (pp. 217-243). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
98. Rogers, C. M., & Terry, T. (1984). Clinical intervention with boy victims of sexual abuse. In I. R. Stuart & J. G. Greer (Eds.), Victims of sexual aggression: Treatment of children, women, and men (pp. 91-104). New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
99. Rothbaum, B. O., Meadows, E. A., Resick, P., & Foy, D. W. (2000). Cognitive-behavioral therapy. In E. Foa, T. Keane, & M. Friedman (Eds.), Effective treatments for PTSD (pp. 60-83). New York: Guilford Press.
100. Ruzek, J. I., Polusny, R. A., & Abueg, F. R. (1998). Assessment and treatment of concurrent post-traumatic stress disorder and substance abuse. In V. M. Follette, J. I. Ruzek, & F. R. Abueg (Eds.), Cognitive-behavioral therapies for trauma (pp. 226-255). New York: Guilford Press.
101. Salter, A. C. (1992). Epidemiology of child sexual abuse. In W. O'Donohue & J. Greer (Eds.), The sexual abuse of children: Theory and research (pp. 108-138). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
102. Schnurr, P. P., & Jankowski, M. K. (1999). Physical health and post-traumatic stress disorder: Review and synthesis. Seminars in Clinical Neuropsychiatry, 4(4), 295-304.
103. Shipherd, J. C., Beck, J. G., Hamblen, J. L., Lackner, J. M., & Freeman, J. B. (2003). A preliminary examination of treatment for posttraumatic stress disorder in chronic pain patients: A case study. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 16(5), 451-457.
104. Shipherd, J. C., Keyes, M., Jovanovic, T., Gordon-Brown, V., Ready, D., Baltzell, D., et al. (2006). Effects of PTSD treatment on health care utilization behavior. Unpublished manuscript.
105. Shipherd, J. C., Keyes, M., Jovanovic, T., Ready, D., Baltzell, D., Worley, V., et al. (2007). Veterans seeking treatment for posttraumatic stress disorder: What about comorbid chronic pain? Journal of Rehabilitation Research and Development, 44(2), 153-165.
106. Shipherd, J. C., Stafford, J., & Tanner, L. R. (2005). Predicting alcohol and drug abuse in Persian Gulf War veterans: What role do PTSD symptoms play? Addictive Behaviors, 30, 595-599.
107. Somer, E., & Szwarcberg, S. (2001). Variables in delayed disclosure of childhood sexual abuse. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 71, 332-341.
108. Steketee, G., & Fogler, J. (2005). The family of a patient with a severe anxiety disorder. In N. Sartorius, J. Leff, J. J. Lopez-Ibor, M. Maj, & A. Okasha (Eds.) Families and mental disorders: From burden to empowerment (pp. 87-112). Chichester, England: Wiley & Sons.
109. Surrey, J. (1991). The self-in-relation: A theory of women's development. In J. Jordan, A. Kaplan, J. B. Miller, A. Stiver, & J. Surrey (Eds.), Women's growth in connection: Writings from the Stone Center (pp. 51-66). New York: Guilford Press.
110. Terr, L. C. (1991). Childhood traumas: An outline and overview. American Journal of Psychiatry, 148, 10-20.
111. Thoburn, J., & Whitman, M. (2004). Clergy affairs: Emotional investment, longevity of relationship and affair partners. Pastoral Psychology, 52(6), 491-506.
112. Torres, S., Harrington, E., Shipherd, J. C., & Resick, P. A. (2006). Race and battered women: Differences in PTSD and other trauma-related symptoms. Unpublished manuscript.
113. Underwood, A. (2002). Abuse of power as a justice issue. Retrieved May 17, 2005, from www.votf.org/papers/AbuseofPowerasjusticeissue.html.
114. van Etten, M. L., & Taylor, S. (1998). Comparative efficacy of treatments for PTSD: A meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, 5(3), 126-145.
115. Wagner, A. W., & Linehan, M. M. (1998). Dissociative behavior. In V. M. Follette, J. I. Ruzek, & F. R. Abueg (Eds.), Cognitive-behavioral therapies for trauma (pp. 191-225). New York: Guilford Press.
116. Wearden, A. J., Tarrier, N., Barrowclough, C., Zastowny, T. R., & Rahill, A. A. (2000). A review of expressed emotion research in healthcare. Clinical Psychology Review, 20, 633-666.
117. Webb, M., & Whitmer, K. J. O. (2003). Parental religiosity, abuse history, and maintenance of beliefs taught in the family. Mental Health, Religion, & Culture, 6, 229-239.
118. Wind, L. H., Sullivan, J. M., & Levins, D. J. (2008). Survivors' perspectives on the impact of clergy sexual abuse on families of origin. Journal of Child Sexual Abuse, 17(3-4), 238-254.
119. World Health Organization. (2001, May). Gender disparities in mental health. Paper presented at the Ministerial Round Tables of the 54th World Health Assembly, Geneva, Switzerland.