C.T.R. Wilson versus G.C. Simpson: Fifty years of controversy in atmospheric electricity

Atmospheric Research

Volumn 91, Issue 2-4, 2009, Pages 259-271

  Williams, Earle R ^a  

^a MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY   (United States)

Author keywords

C.T.R. Wilson; Cloud polarity; G.C. Simpson; Thunderstorm dipole

Indexed keywords

LIGHTNING;

C.T.R. WILSON; CLOUD POLARITY; CORONA CURRENTS; G.C. SIMPSON; LIGHTNING FLASHES; NEGATIVELY CHARGED; SOURCE CURRENTS; THUNDERSTORM DIPOLE;

ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY;

ATMOSPHERIC STRUCTURE; CLOUD TO GROUND LIGHTNING; CORONA; HYPOTHESIS TESTING; RAINDROP; THUNDERCLOUD; TWENTIETH CENTURY;

EID: 58149302007     PISSN: 01698095     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.atmosres.2008.03.024     Document Type: Note

References (92)

1. Adlerman E.J., and Williams E.R. Seasonal variations of the global electrical circuit. J. Geophys. Res. 101 (1996) 29679-29688
2. Appleton R.V. Geophysical influences on the transmission of wireless waves, 16D-22D. "A Discussion on Ionization in the Atmosphere and its Influence on the Propagation of Wireless Signals" (held Nov 28, 1924 at Imperial College, London), in Proceedings of the Physical Society of London (1925), Fleetway Press
3. Appleton E.V., and Barnett M.A.F. Local reflection of wireless waves from the ionosphere. Nature 115 (1925) 333-334
4. Appleton E.V., Wattson Watt R.A., and Herd J.F. On the nature of atmospherics. Proc. Roy. Soc. Ser. A 111 (1926) 654-677
5. Austin B.A. Lightning and the ionosphere: Some reflections from an earlier era. Radio Science Bulletin, Int'l Union of Radio Science, No. 300 (2002) 6-11 March
6. Blackett P.M.S. Charles Thomson Rees Wilson. Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society vol. 6 (1960) 269-295
7. Boccippio D.J., Williams E., Heckman S.J., Lyons W.A., Baker I., and Boldi R. Sprites, ELF transients and positive ground strikes. Science 269 (1995) 1088-1091
8. Bragg, W.H., 1922. Meeting for the discussion of geophysical subjects, The Maintenance of the Earth's Electric Charge, The Observatory, December, 391-395.
9. Branick M.L., and Doswell C.A. An observation of the relationship between supercell structure and lightning ground strike polarity. Weather Forecast. 7 (1992) 143-149
10. Brooks C.E.P. The distribution of thunderstorms over the globe. Geophys. Mem., London 24 (1925) 147-164
11. Carey L.D., and Buffalo K.M. Environmental control of cloud-to-ground lightning polarity in severe storms. Mon. Weather Rev. 135 (2007) 1327-1353
12. Dee P.I., and Wormell T.W. An index to C. T. R. Wilson's laboratory records and notebooks in the Library of the Royal Society. Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London vol. 18, No. 1 (1963) 54-66
13. Elster J., and Geitel H. Über eine Methode, die elektrishsche Natur der atmosphärischen Niederschalage zu bestimmen. Met. Z. 5 (1888) 95-100
14. Elster J., and Geitel H. Über eine fernere Analogie in den elektrischen Verhalten der natürlichen und der durch Becquerelstrahlen abnorm leitend gemachten Luft. Phys. Z. 2 (1901) 590-593
15. Feynman R.P., Leighton R.B., and Sands M. The Feynman Lectures on Physics (1965), Addison-Wesley Publishing
16. Franklin B. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. 47 (1752) 289
17. Gish O.H., and Wait G.R. Thunderstorms and the Earth's general electrification. J. Geophys. Res. 55 (1950) 473-484
18. Gold E. George Clarke Simpson. Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society (1965), The Royal Society, London 157-175
19. Gott J.P. On the electric charge collected by water drops falling through ionized air in a vertical electric field. Proc. Roy. Soc. A 142 (1933) 248-268
20. Gott J.P. On the electric charge collected by water drops falling through a cloud of electrically charged particles in a vertical electric field. Proc. Roy. Soc. A 151 (1935) 665-684
21. Halliday E.C. The polarity of thunderclouds. Proc. Roy. Soc. A 138 (1932) 205-229
22. Harrison R.G., and Ingram W.J. Air-earth current measurements at Kew, London, 1909-1979. Atmos. Res. 76 (2005) 49-64
23. Hess V.F. Messungen der durchdringenden Strahlen bei zwei Freiballonfahrten. S.B. Akad. Wiss., Wien 120 (1911) 1575-1584
24. Hoffmann K. Bericht über die in Ebeltofthafen auf Spitzbergen in den Jahren 1913-14 durchgeführten luftelectrishchen Messungen. Beitr. Phys. Frei. Atmos. 11 (1923) 1-19
25. Holden D.N., Holmes C.R., Moore C.B., Winn W.P., Cobb J.W., Griswold J.E., and Lytle D.M. Local charge concentrations in thunderclouds. In: Ruhnke L.H., and Latham J. (Eds). Proceedings in Atmospheric Electricity (1983), A. Deepak, Hampton, VA 179-183
26. Huang E., Williams E., Boldi R., Heckman S., Lyons W., Taylor M., Nelson T., and Wong C. Criteria for sprites and elves based on Schumann resonance observations. J. Geophys. Res. 104 (1999) 16943-16964
27. Humphreys, W.J., 1914. The thunderstorm and its phenomena, J. Franklin Inst., 177, November issue (517-560); December issue (751-776).
28. Jacobson E.A., and Krider E.P. Electrostatic field changes produced by Florida lightning. J. Atmos. Sci. 33 (1976) 103-117
29. Jenson J.C. Further studies n the electrical charges of thunderstorms (A report of progress). Mon. Weather Rev. (1930) 115-116
30. Jenson J.C. The branching of thunderclouds and the polarity of thunderclouds. J. Franklin Inst. 216 (1933) 707-748
31. Krehbiel P.R., Brook M., and McCrory R.A. An analysis of the charge structure of lightning discharges to ground. J. Geophys. Res. 84 (1979) 2432-2456
32. Krehbiel P.R., Thomas R.J., Rison W., Hamlin T., Harlin J., and Davis M. GPS-based mapping system reveals lightning inside storms. EOS, Trans. AGU 81 (2000) 21
33. Lemonnier L.G. Observations sur l'électricité de l'air. Mem. Acad. Sci. 2 (1752) 233
34. Lenard P. Über der Elektrizität der Wasserfälle. Ann. Phys., Leipzig 46 (1892) 584-636
35. Lenard P. Über Regen (About Rain). Meteor. Zeitung 21 (1904) 249-264
36. Lyons W.A. The meteorology of transient luminous events: an introduction and overview. In: Fullekrug M. (Ed). Sprites, Elves and Intense Lightning Discharges (2006), Springer 19-56
37. MacGorman D.R., and Burgess D.W. Positive cloud-to-ground lightning in tornado storms and hailstorms. Mon. Weather Rev. 122 (1994) 1671-1697
38. MacGorman D.R., Rust W.D., Schuur T.J., Biggerstaff M.I., Straka J.M., Ziegler C.I., Mansell E.R., Bruning E.C., Kuhlman K.M., Lund N.R., Biermann N.S., Payne C., Carey L.D., Krehbiel P.R., Rison W., Eack K.B., and Beasley W.H. TELEX: The Thunderstorm Electrification and Lightning Experiment. Bull. Am. Met. Soc. 89 (2008) 997-1013
39. Manohar G.K., Kandalgaonkar S.S., and Tinmaker M.I.T. Thunderstorm activity over India and the Indian southwest monsoon. J. Geophys. Res. 104 (1999) 4169-4188
40. Mauchly S.J. Diurnal variation of the potential gradient of atmospheric electricity. Terr. Magn. Atmos. Electr. 28 (1923) 61-81
41. Rust D.W., and MacGorman D.R. Possibly inverted-polarity electrical structures in thunderstorms during STEPS. Geophys. Res. Lett. 29 (2002) 12
42. Rust W.D., and Moore C.B. Electrical conditions near the bases of clouds over New Mexico. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 100 (1974) 450-468
43. Schonland B.F.J., and Allibone T.E. Branching of lightning. Nature 128 (1931) 794-795
44. Schonland B.F.J., and Craib J. The electric field of South African thunderstorms. Proc. Roy. Soc. AS 114 (1927) 229-243
45. Shepherd T.R., Rust W.D., and Marshall T.C. Electric fields and charges near 0 °C in stratiform clouds. Mon. Weather Rev. 122 (1996) 1740-1750
46. Simpson, G.C., 1903. On charging through ion absorption and its bearing on the Earth's permanent negative charge, Phil. Mag., 6, 589.
47. Simpson G.C. Atmospheric electricity in high latitudes. Phil. Trans. A 205 (1905) 61-97
48. Simpson G.C. On the electricity of rain and its origin in thunderstorms. Phil. Trans. A 209 (1909) 379-413
49. Simpson, G.C., 1910. Earth-air electric currents, Phil. Mag., 19, 715-725.
50. Simpson G.C. Atmospheric electricity. Nature 90 (1912) 411-412
51. Simpson, G.C., 1915. The electricity of atmospheric precipitation, Phil. Mag. (London, Edinburgh and Dublin), 30, 1-12.
52. Simpson G.C. British Antarctic Expedition, 1910-1913. Meteorology (Calcutta) 1 (1919) 302-312
53. Simpson G.C. On lightning. Proc. Roy. Soc. A 111 (1926) 56-67
54. Simpson G.C. The mechanism of the thunderstorm. Proc. Roy. Soc. A 114 (1927) 376-401
55. Simpson G.C. The electricity of cloud and rain. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 68 (1942) 1-34
56. Simpson G.C. Atmospheric electricity during disturbed weather. Geophys. Mem. vol. 48 (1949), Meteorological Office 1-51
57. Simpson G.C. Atmospheric Electricity During the Last Fifty Years, Parts I (104-108), II (134-140), and III (170-174) (1949)
58. Simpson G.C., and Robinson G.D. The distribution of electricity in thunderclouds II. Proc. Roy. Soc. A. 177 (1940) 281-329
59. Simpson G.C., and Scrase F.J. The distribution of electricity in thunderclouds. Proc. Roy. Soc. A 161 (1937) 309-352
60. Simpson G.C., and Wright C.S. Atmospheric electricity over the ocean. Proc. Roy. Soc. A 85 (1911) 175-199
61. Soula S., and Chauzy S. Multilevel measurement of the electric field underneath a thundercloud 2. Dynamical evolution of a ground space charge layer. J. Geophys. Res. 96 (1991) 22,327-22,336
62. Standler R.B., and Winn W.P. Effects of coronae on electric fields beneath thunderstorms. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 105 (1979) 285-302
63. Stolzenburg M. Observations of high ground flash densities of positive lightning in summertime thunderstorms. Mon. Weather Rev. 122 (1994) 1740-1750
64. Watson Watt R.A. Some Problems of Modern Meteorology, No. 3, The present position of theories of the electricity of thunderstorms. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 57 (1931) 133-142
65. Whipple F.J.W. On the association of the diurnal variation of the electric potential gradient in fine weather with the distribution of thunderstorms over the globe. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 55 (1929) 351-361
66. Williams E.R. The tripole structure of thunderstorms. J. Geophys. Res. 94 (1989) 13151-13167
67. Williams E.R. The positive charge reservoir for sprite-producing lightning. J. Atmos. Sol.-Terr. Phys. 60 (1998) 689-692
68. Williams, E.R., 2001. Sprites, elves and glow discharge tubes, Physics Today, November, 41-47.
69. Williams E.R. The role of elevated cloud base height in the inverted electrical polarity of severe storms, Chapter 5. Recent Progress in Lightning Physics (2005), Research Signpost, Kerala, India 69-79
70. Williams E.R. Problems in lightning physics-the role of polarity asymmetry. Plasma Sources Sci. Technol. 15 (2006) S91-S108 10.1088/0963-0252/15/2/S12
71. Williams E.R., and Heckman S.J. The local diurnal variation of cloud electrification and the global diurnal variation of negative charge on the earth. J. Geophys. Res. 98 (1993) 5221-5234
72. Williams E., and Yair Y. The microphysical and electrical properties of sprite-producing thunderstorms. In: Fullekrug M., et al. (Ed). Sprites, Elves and Intense Lightning Discharges (2006), Springer 57-83
73. Williams E., Rutledge S., Geotis S., Renno N., Rasmussen E., and Rickenback T. A radar and electrical study of tropical 'hot towers'. J. Atmos. Sci. 49 (1992) 1386-1395
74. Williams E.R., et al. Contrasting convective regimes over the Amazon: implications for cloud electrification. J. Geophys. Res., LBA Special Issue 107 D20 (2002) 8082 10.1029/2001JD000380
75. Williams E., Mushtak V., Rosenfeld D., Goodman S., and Boccippio D. Thermodynamic conditions favorable to superlative thunderstorm updraft, mixed phase microphysics and lightning flash rate. Atmos. Res. 76 (2005) 288-306
76. Wilson C.T.R. On the ionization of atmospheric air. Proc. Roy. Soc. A 68 (1901) 151-161
77. Wilson C.T.R. Atmospheric electricity. Nature 68 (1903) 102-104
78. Wilson C.T.R. On the measurement of the air-earth current and on the origin of atmospheric electricity. Proc. Camb. Philol. Soc. 13 (1906) 363-382
79. Wilson C.T.R. On the measurement of the atmospheric electric potential gradient and the Earth-air current. Proc. Roy. Soc. A 80 (1908) 537-547
80. Wilson C.T.R. On some determinations of the sign and magnitude of electric discharges in lightning flashes. Proc. Roy. Soc. A. 92 (1916) 555-574
81. Wilson C.T.R. Memorandum on the Protection of Balloons From Disruptive Discharge (1917), Advisory Committee on Aeronautics
82. Wilson C.T.R. Investigations on lightning discharges and the electric field of thunderstorms. Phil. Trans. A 221 (1920) 73-115
83. Wilson C.T.R. Investigations on X-rays and β-rays by the cloud method. Part I: X-rays. Proc. Roy. Soc. A. 104 (1923) 1
84. Wilson C.T.R. Investigations on X-rays and β-rays by the cloud method. Part II: β-rays. Proc. Roy. Soc. A. 104 (1923) 192
85. Wilson C.T.R. On some α-ray tracks. Proc. Camb. Philol. Soc. 21 (1923) 405
86. Wilson C.T.R. The electric field of a thundercloud and some of its effects. Proc. Phys. Soc., London 37 (1925) 32D-37D
87. Wilson C.T.R. The acceleration of β-particles in strong electric fields such as those in thunderclouds. Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. 22 (1925) 534
88. Wilson C.T.R. Some thundercloud problems. J. Franklin Inst. 208 (1929) 1-12
89. Wilson C.T.R. A theory of thundercloud electricity. Proc. Roy. Soc. A 236 (1956) 297-317
90. Wilson C.T.R. Reminiscences of my early years. Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London vol. 14, No. 2 (1959) 163-173
91. Wilson C.T.R. On the Cloud Method of Making Visible Ions and Tracks of Ionizing Particles, Nobel Lecture, Dec. 12, 1927, in Nobel Lectures 1922-1941 (1965), Elsevier 194-214
92. Wormell T.W. Vertical electric currents below thunderstorms and showers. Proc. Roy. Soc., London, Series A 127 (1930) 567-590