Atlantic conjunctures in anglo-american neurology: Lewis H. weed and Johns hopkinsneurology, 1917-1942

Bulletin of the History of Medicine

Volumn 82, Issue 3, 2008, Pages 646-671

  Casper, Stephen T ^a  

^a CLARKSON UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Britain america; Global history; Neurology; Psychiatry; Ransnational; Rockefeller foundation; Specialization medicine

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; HISTORY; MEDICAL EDUCATION; MEDICAL SCHOOL; NEUROLOGY; UNITED STATES; UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL;

ACADEMIC MEDICAL CENTERS; BALTIMORE; EDUCATION, MEDICAL; HISTORY, 20TH CENTURY; NEUROLOGY; SCHOOLS, MEDICAL;

EID: 58149134856     PISSN: 00075140     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (117)

1. This excellent literature includes: Leonard Guthrie, Contributions to the Study of Precocity in Children, The History of Neurology: the Fitzpatrick Lectures on the History of Medicine Delivered at the Royal College of Physicians in the Years 1907, 1908 (London: Eric G. Millar, 1921); Fielding H. Garrison, "History of Neurology," in Charles L. Dana, Text-book of Nervous Diseases for the Use of Students and Practitioners of Medicine, 10th ed. (New York: William Wood, 1925), pp. xv-lvi; Samuel Greenblatt, "The Major Influences on the Early Life and Works of John Hughlings Jackson," Bull. Hist. Med., 1965, 39: 346-76; Edwin Clarke and D. D. O'Malley, The Human Brain and Spinal Cord (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1968); Lawrence McHenry, Garrison's History of Neurology (Springfield, Ill.: Charles C. Thomas, 1969); Owsei Temkin, The Falling Sickness: A History of Epilepsy From the Greeks to the Beginnings of Modern Neurology (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1971); Russell DeJong, A History of American Neurology (New York: Raven Press, 1982); Roy Porter, The Greatest Benefit to Mankind: A Medical History of Humanity (New York: W. W. Norton), pp. 534 -51; Sidney Ochs, A History of Nerve Functions: From Animal Spirits to Molecular Mechanisms (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004).
2. Collin L. Talley, "The Emergence of Multiple Sclerosis, 1870-1950," Perspect. Biol. Med., 2005, 48: 385-87; Ingrid D. Farreras, Caroline Hannaway, and Victoria A. Harden, eds., Mind, Brain, Body, and Behavior: Foundations of Neuroscience and Behavioral Research at the National Institutes of Health. Biomedical and Health Research, vol. 62 (Amsterdam: IOS Press, 2004).
3. Webb Haymaker and Francis Schiller, eds. The Founders of Neurology: One Hundred and Forty-six Biographical Sketches (Springfield, Ill.: Charles C. Thomas, 1970); Bonnie Ellen Blustein, Preserve Your Love For Science: Life of William Hammond, American Neurologist (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991); Christopher Goetz, Michel Bonduelle, and Toby Gelfand, Charcot: Constructing Neurology (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995).
4. Bonnie Ellen Blustein, "New York Neurologists and the Specialization of American Medicine," Bull. Hist. Med., 1979, 53: 170-83.
5. Exceptions are Stephen Casper, "The Idioms of Practice: British Neurology, 1880-1960" (Ph.D. diss., University College London, 2007); Jesse F. Ballenger, Self, Senility, and Alzheimer's Disease in Modern America: A History (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2006), pp. 36-55; Roger Smith, The Fontana History of the Human Sciences (London: HarperCollins, 1997); Janet Oppenheim, Shattered Nerves: Doctors, Patients, and Depression in Victorian England (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), pp. 40-41; c.f. George S. Rousseau, Nervous Acts: Essays on Literature, Culture and Sensibility (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004).
6. Gerald Geison, Michael Foster and the Cambridge School of Physiology: The Scientific Enterprise in Late Victorian Society (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978); James Hendrie Lloyd, "The Neuroses of Peace," Archives Neurol. Psych., 1920, 4: 1-7; Francis Walshe, "Training of the Neurologist," Arch. Neurol. Psych., 1933, 29: 380-91.
7. Andrew Abbott, The System of the Professions: An Essay on the Division of Expert Labor (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988), on neurology specifically, see pp. 319-23; William Bynum, "The Nervous Patient in 18th- and 19th-century Britain: The Psychiatric Origins of British Neurology," in Lectures on the History of Psychiatry: The Squibb Series (London: Gaskell, 1990), pp. 115-27.
8. The emphasis is mine. Ellen Dwyer, "Toward New Narratives of Twentieth-Century Medicine," Bull. Hist. Med., 2000, 74: 786-93, p. 788. For representative examples of Dwyer's point, see Joan Jacobs Brumberg's Fasting Girls: The History of Anorexia Nervosa (New York: Vintage Books, 2000) and Gerald N. Grob, Mental Illness and American Society, 1875-1940 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1983), pp. 50-62. Historians interested in neurology have begun to examine these issues. See F. Clifford Rose, "Historiography: An Introduction," J. Hist. Neurosci., 2002, 11: 35-37 and, in the same issue, Thomas S̈derqvist, "Neurobiographies: Writing Lives in the History of Neurology and the Neurosciences," pp. 38-48, and Helge Kragh, "Problems and Challenges in the Historical Study of the Neurosciences," pp. 55-62.
9. Exceptions include: Peter Koehler, "The Evolution of British Neurology in Comparison with Other Countries," in A Short History of Neurology: The British Contribution, 1660-1910, ed. F. Clifford Rose (Oxford: Butterworth and Heinemann, 1999), pp. 58-74; Susan Gross Solomon, ed., Doing Medicine Together: Germany and Russia Between the Wars (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2006), pp. 325-68, 407-61.
10. Robert Young, Mind, Brain, and Adaptation in the Nineteenth Century (New York: Oxford University Press, 1970); Anne Harrington, Medicine, Mind, and the Double Brain: A Study in Nineteenth-Century Thought (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1987); Roger Smith, Inhibition: History and Meaning in the Sciences of the Brain and Mind (London: Free Association Books, 1992); and L. Stephen Jacyna, Lost Words: Narratives of Language and the Brain, 1825-1926 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000).
11. Notable exceptions are: George Weisz, Divide and Conquer: A Comparative History of Medical Specialization (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006), esp. pp. 210-13; Douglas Lanska, T. A. Chmura, and Christopher Goetz, "Part 1: The History of 19th Century Neurology and the American Neurological Association," Ann. Neurol., 2003, 53(Suppl. 4): S2-S26; Daniela Barberis, "Changing Practices of Commemoration in Neurology," Osiris, 1999, 14: 102-17; Jack Pressman, Last Resort: Psychosurgery and the Limits of Medicine (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998).
12. For example, see: G. J. Fraenkel, Hugh Cairns: First Nuffield Professor of Surgery, University of Oxford (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003).
13. Joel A. Vilensky, Sid Gilman, and Pandy R. Sinish, "Denny-Brown, Boston City Hospital, and the History of American Neurology," Perspect. Biol. Med., 2004, 47: 505-18.
14. A methodological point must be made about such cross-cultural comparison. Inmany respects, the challenge of producing this type of argument from archival sources is that it forces at once painstaking detail and an understanding of the subtleties of national, local, and connected contexts. At the same time, editorial considerations make it challenging to render the narrative brief and readable. An elegant example showing markedly similar tensions is Mark Harrison, "Disease, Diplomacy, and International Commerce: The Origins of International Sanitary Regulation in the Nineteenth Century," J. Global Hist., 2006, 1: 197-217. On the role of appreciations and dispositions, see Pierre Bourdieu, Homo Academicus (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1992).
15. See, for example, Kenneth Ludmerer, Learning to Heal: The Development of American Medical Education (New York: Basic Books, 1985), pp. 38-42, 57-58, 63, 219-20; Thomas Turner, Heritage of Excellence: The Johns Hopkins Medical Institutions, 1914 -1947 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1974); Alan Chesney, The Johns Hopkins Hospital and The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine: A Chronicle, 2 vols. (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1958).
16. For a most recent discussion about the influence of Hopkins's model, see Constance Putnam, The Science We Have Loved and Taught: Dartmouth Medical School's First Two Centuries (Hanover: University Press of New England, 2004), pp. 86-160; see also Paul Starr, The Social Transformation of American Medicine (New York: Basic Books, 1982), pp. 115-18; Rosemary Stevens, American Medicine and the Public Interest (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1971), pp. 41-42, 56-58, 69. For American medicine and philanthropy, see E. Richard Brown, Rockefeller Medical Men: Medicine and Capitalism in America (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1979).
17. Kenneth Ludmerer, "The Rise of the Teaching Hospital in America," J. Hist. Med. All. Sci., 1983, 38: 389-414; Ludmerer, "The Plight of Clinical Teaching in America," Bull. Hist. Med., 1983, 57: 218-29.
18. Simon Flexner and James Thomas Flexner, William H. Welch and the Rise of Modern Medicine (Boston: Little, Brown, 1954); Harvey Cushing, The Life of Sir William Osler, 2 vols. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1925).
19. John Harley Warner, "Science in Medicine," Osiris, 1985, 1: 37-58; Warner, "Ideals of Science and their Discontents in Late Nineteenth-Century American Medicine," Isis, 1991, 82: 454 -78.
20. Gerald Geison, "Divided We Stand: Physiologists and Clinicians in American Context," in The Therapeutic Revolution: Essays in the Social History of American Medicine, ed. Morris J. Vogel and Charles Rosenberg (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1979), pp. 115-29.
21. Ock-Joo Cho Kim, "The Integration of Science with the Healing Art: Harvey Cushing's Development of Neurosurgery, 1896-1912" (Ph.D. diss., University of Minnesota, 1998).
22. Samuel Greenblatt, "Harvey Cushing's Paradigmatic Contribution to Neurosurgery and the Evolution of his Thoughts About Specialization," Bull. Hist. Med., 2003, 77: 789-822. On Rickman Godlee, see Anthony Feiling, A History of the Maida Vale Hospital for Nervous Diseases (London: Butterworth, 1958), appendices 1-3.
23. Michael Bliss, Harvey Cushing: A Life in Surgery (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005).
24. Adolf Meyer to William Osler, 7 April 1913, I/2963/3 Osler, Sir William, The Adolf Meyer Collection, The Alan Mason Chesney Medical Archives of the Johns Hopkins Medical Institutions (hereafter referred to as AMCMA).
25. C. N. B. Camac, ed., Counsels and Ideals From the Writings of William Osler, 2nd ed. (London: Henry Frowde, 1906), pp. 182-87, p. 182.
26. Turner, Heritage of Excellence (n. 15), pp. 149-75.
27. Abraham Flexner, Medical Education in the United States and Canada: A Report to the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching (Boston: Merrymont Press, 1910). See, for example, p. 12: "This was the first medical school in America of genuine university type, with something approaching adequate endowment, well equipped laboratories conducted by modern teachers, devoting themselves unreservedly to medical investigations and instruction, and with its own hospital, in which the training of physicians and the healing of the sick harmoniously combine to the infinite advantage of both."
28. Adolf Meyer to Simon Flexner, 2 October 1919, 1/1187/1 Flexner, Simon, The Adolf Meyer Collection, AMCMA; on Meyer see The Adolf Meyer Collection, Repository Guide to the Personal Papers Collections of Alan Mason Chesney Medical Archives Johns Hopkins Institutions, available at http://www.medicalarchives.jhmi.edu/sgml/meyera.html (last accessed 29 September 2004).
29. Exact details of Henry M. Thomas's appointment are difficult to locate. In his papers published in theJohns Hopkins Medical Bulletin, his title is given routinely as "Clinical Profession of Neurology." For instance, see H. M. Thomas, "Decussation of the Pyramids An Historical Inquiry," Johns Hopkins Med. Bull., 1910, 21: 304-11; on the other hand, Chesney writes that he was appointed as "Clinical Professor of Diseases of the Nervous System": Chesney, The Johns Hopkins Hospital and The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine (n. 15), p. 91. There is no corroborating evidence in Thomas's papers. See the files marked: Thomas, Henry M. Sr., Fac. 86-87 (Sch. Med), The Biographical Collection, AMCMA. See also "Thomas, Henry M.," in The National Cyclopaedia of American Biography: Being the History of the United States as Illustrated in the Lives of the Founders, Builders, and Defenders of the Republic, and of the Men and Women Who are Doing the Work and Moulding of the Thought of the Present Time, 1929, 20: 163.
30. On Dandy, see "Walter Edward Dandy," JAMA, 1946, 130: 1257; see also Walter Dandy, "Ventriculography Following the Injection of Air in the Cerebral Ventricals," Ann. Surg., 1918, 68: 5-11.
31. Turner, Heritage of Excellence (n. 15), pp. 202-8.
32. This was the condition of neurology in universities and medical colleges throughout America at the time: Barrow Neurological Institute of St. Joseph's Hospital, Arizona, Horizons in Neurological Education and Research: Commemorative Volume of Dedication Symposium and Addresses (Springfield, Ill.: Charles C. Thomas, 1965), pp. 41-46.
33. Lewis Weed to Alan Gregg, 29 October 1937, Correspondence Neurology Committee on Dec. 1934 -May 1940, The Lewis H. Weed Collection, AMCMA [enclosure: A Plan for the Development of Neurology at the Johns Hopkins University].
34. Required Teaching in Neurology, c. 1920, Correspondence Neurology Committee, Sept. 1917-1921, The Lewis H. Weed Collection, AMCMA. A useful discussion of teaching in neurology and psychiatry in America appears in Jeanne L. Brand, "Neurology and Psychiatry," in The Education of American Physicians: Historical Essays, ed. Ronald Numbers (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980), pp. 226-49.
35. Although I use the term "neurologist" throughout this paper, the term today implies a greater sense of professional identity than existed in neurology in this period. A useful discussion of neurology's definition appears in Mervyn Eadie, The Flowering of a Waratah: The History of Australian Neurology and of the Australian Association of Neurologists (Eastleigh: John Libbey; 2000), pp. 3-42; also see Howard Kushner, A Cursing Brain: The Histories of Tourette Syndrome (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1999), p. 235, footnote 21.
36. Henderson to Meyer, 29 October 1911, I/1569/1 Henderson, David K; Gordon M. Holmes to Meyer, 2 October 1912 (Holmes had spent a short time there) I/1759/1 Holmes; Symonds to Meyer, 12 June 1923, I/3753/1 Symonds, Charles P. Penfield to Meyer 21 February 1929, I/3046/2 Penfield, Wilder; Hurst to Meyer, 11 March 1920, I/1848/1 Hurst, Arthur F. The Adolf Meyer Collection, AMCMA.
37. Repository Guide to the Personal Papers Collections of Alan Mason Chesney Medical Archives Johns Hopkins Institutions, The Lewis H. Weed Collection, available at http://www.medical archives.jhmi.edu/sgml/weed.html (last accessed 29 September 2004).
38. See the description of these early theories in Douglas McAlpine, Nigel Compston, and Charles Lumsden, Multiple Sclerosis (London: E&S Livingston, 1955), pp. 257-58.
39. Thomas Gariepy, "John Farquhar Fulton and the History of Science Society," Isis, 1999, 90(Suppl.): S7-S27, p. S19.
40. For information on this Anglo-American collaboration, see Stephen Casper, "The Origins of the Anglo-American Research Alliance and the Incidence of Civilian Neuroses in Second World War Britain," Med. Hist., 2008, 52: 327-46.
41. Edward Mellanby to G. E. Brown, 7 January 1944, FD 1/6579 National Archives, London.
42. See Resolution 40008, 1/19/1940, for an administrative overview, Record Group (hereafter referred to as RG) 1.1, Series 200, box 94, folder 1132: Johns Hopkins Neurology 1930-1935, Rockefeller Archive Center, Sleepy Hollow, New York (hereafter referred to as RAC).
43. Reprint of Official Statement Sent to the Press on 12 March 1925, Announcing Affiliation of the Neurological Institute with the Columbia-Presbyterian Medical Center (CPMC); Neurological Institute of New York Collection, 1917-1983 (bulk 1930-1960), Affiliation with CPMC: Correspondence, Documents, 1925-1955, Neurological Institute, box 1, fo. 1; Columbia University Archives and Special Collections; see also John Green, "The Origins of Neurological Institutes," in Barrow Neurological Institute, Horizons in Neurological Education and Research (n. 32), pp. 125-99, 147.
44. Lewis Weed to H. J. Seymour, 6 May 1926, Correspondence Neurology Committee March 1924 -Nov 1927, The Lewis H. Weed Collection, AMCMA; on Cobb, see Benjamin White, Stanley Cobb: A Builder of the Modern Neurosciences (Boston: University Press, 1984).
45. Cushing quoted in John Fulton, Harvey Cushing: A Biography (Springfield, Ill.: Charles C. Thomas, 1946), p. 445.
46. Ibid., p. 450.
47. Richard Meagher, William Buchheit, and Raj K. Narayan, "The History of Neurosurgery at Temple University," Neurosurg., 2004, 55: 688-97, p. 691. Spiegel's ambitiousness in writing such a proposal is similar to other aspects of his career. He had, for example, published a lengthy review of the progress made in neurology and psychiatry in 1928: Ernest Spiegel, Monographien aus den Gesamptgebiete der Neurologie und Psychiatric Heft 54 (Springer, 1928).
48. E. Spiegel, Vienna University Outline of the Organization of a Neurological Institute, pp. 1-4, p. 1, Correspondence Neurology Committee March 1917-Nov 1921, The Lewis H. Weed Collection, AMCMA.
49. Ibid., pp. 1-2.
50. Ibid., p. 2.
51. To the Faculty of the Johns Hopkins Medical School, 17 March 1921, Correspondence Neurology Committee March 1917-Nov 1921, The Lewis H. Weed Collection, AMCMA.
52. Required Teaching in Neurology and Elective Courses in Neurology, Correspondence Neurology Committee March 1924 -Nov 1927, The Lewis H. Weed Collection, AMCMA.
53. Committee on Neurology to Faculty of the Johns Hopkins Medical School, 17 March 1921, Correspondence Neurology Committee March 1924 -Nov 1927, The Lewis H. Weed Collection, AMCMA.
54. Plan for the Organization of the Department of Neurology, Correspondence Neurology Committee March 1924 -Nov 1927, The Lewis H. Weed Collection, AMCMA.
55. Ibid.
56. Adolf Meyer to Charles Symonds, 29 May 1923, I/3753/1 Symonds, C. P., The Adolf Meyer Collection, AMCMA.
57. Symonds to Meyer, AMCMA (n. 36).
58. Walshe had been appointed professor of neurology only in that year. See his comments in "Pride and Prejudice: The Case for Specialism in Medicine," Univ. Coll. Hosp. Mag., 1956, XLI: 77. On Walshe, see C. G. Philips, "Francis Martin Rouse Walshe, 1885-1973," Biogr. Mem. Fellows R. Soc., 1974, 20: 475-81; William Goody, "Walshe, Sir Francis Martin Rouse (1885-1973)," in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), available at http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/31796 (last accessed 29 September 2004).
59. Warfield Longcope to Francis Walshe, 24 June 1924, MS ADD 301, Library Services, Walshe Papers University College London (hereafter referred to as UCL).
60. Warfield Longcope to Francis Walshe, 4 September 1924, MS ADD 301, UCL.
61. Francis Walshe to Lewis Weed, 12 December 1924, The Lewis H. Weed Collection, Walshe, F. M. R., 1922-1937, AMCMA.
62. Anon., "Neurology in the War," BMJ, 1919, 2: 790-91.
63. There are several histories of the hospital and its neighborhood. See Ernest Gowers, Queen Square and the National Hospital, 1860-1960 (London: Edward Arnold, 1960); Gordon Holmes, The National Hospital, Queen Square, 1860-1948 (Edinburgh: E&S Livingston, 1954); Godfrey Heathcote Hamilton, Queen Square: Its Neighbourhood & Its Institutions (London: L. Parsons, 1926); B. Burford Rawlings, A Hospital in the Making: A History of the National Hospital for the Paralyzed and Epileptic (London: Pitman, 1913).
64. James Purdon Martin, "British Neurology in the Last Fifty Years: Some Personal Experiences." Proc. R. Soc. Med., 1971, 64: 1055-59; Martin, "Reminiscences of Queen Square," BMJ, 1981, 283(6307): 1640-42.
65. Archibald Garrod, "The Laboratory and the Ward," in Contributions to Medical and Biological Research, Dedicated to Sir William Osler Bart., M.D., F.R.S. In Honour of his Seventieth Birthday, July 12, 1919 By His Pupils and Co-Workers, 2 vols. (New York: Paul B. Hoeber, 1919), pp. 60-61.
66. John McMichael, "Fraser, Sir Francis Richard (1885-1964)," in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, ed. H. C. G. Matthew and Brian Harrison (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), available at http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/33251 (last accessed 29 January 2007).
67. Francis Fraser to Alan Gregg, 6 June 1932, RG 1.1, folder 265, box 20, series 401, RAC.
68. Henry Thomas to Francis Walshe, 17 October 1924, MS ADD 301, UCL.
69. Lewis Weed to Francis Walshe, 31 March 1925, Walshe, F. M. R., 1922-1937, The Lewis H. Weed Collection, AMCMA.
70. Francis Walshe to Lewis Weed, 16 April 1925a, Walshe, F. M. R., 1922-1937, The Lewis H. Weed Collection, AMCMA.
71. Francis Walshe to Lewis Weed, 16 April 1925b, Walshe, F. M. R., 1922-1937, The Lewis H. Weed Collection, AMCMA. Walshe apparently recalled seeing a number of extraordinary neurological cases while at Hopkins. See Macdonald Critchley, "1885-1973 Sir Francis Walshe" in The Ventricle of Memory: Personal Recollections of Some Neurologists (New York: Raven Press, 1990), pp. 195-206, 203.
72. Weed to Walshe (n. 69), AMCMA.
73. Walshe to Weed (n. 71), AMCMA.
74. Lewis Weed to Francis Walshe, 29 April 1925, Walshe, F. M. R., 1922-1937, The Lewis H. Weed Collection, AMCMA.
75. A Proposal for a University Clinic and Institute of Neurology at the Johns Hopkins Medical School and Hospital, pp. 1-8, p. 1, Correspondence Neurology Committee March 1924 -Nov 1927, The Lewis H. Weed Collection, AMCMA.
76. Ibid., pp. 2-3.
77. Ibid., p. 3.
78. See Norman Dott's enclosures to Harvey Cushing, 26 September 1929, where he says in a proposal to the Rockefeller Foundation, "I think these last considerations apply with special force to Edinburgh, among other British Schools, in which neurology in the wide sense of the term does not occupy quite the definitely recognised status of the special subject that it does in most American and many Continental Schools." Dott, Norman M. 1924 -1938, The Harvey Williams Cushing Papers in the Yale University Library, Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University Library, Microfilms Series I, box 24, 448, Microfilm Reel 21; on conditions in France, see Barberis, "Changing Practices of Commemoration in Neurology" (n. 11), pp. 102-8.
79. A Proposal for a University Clinic and Institute of Neurology at the Johns Hopkins Medical School and Hospital (n. 75), pp. 6-7.
80. William Schneider, "The Men Who Followed Flexner: Richard Pearce, Alan Gregg, and the Rockefeller Foundation Medical Divisions, 1919-1951," in Rockefeller Philanthropy and Modern Biomedicine: International Initiatives from World War I to the Cold War, ed. William Schneider (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2002); Christopher Lawrence, Rockefeller Money, the Laboratory and Medicine in Edinburgh, 1919-1930: New Culture in an Old Country (New York: University of Rochester Press, 2005); Wilder Penfield, The Difficult Art of Giving: The Epic of Alan Gregg (Boston, 1967).
81. Lewis Weed to Robert Lambert, 17 June 1930, RG 1.1, Series 200, box 94, folder 1132 Johns Hopkins Neurology 1930-1935, RAC.
82. Harvey Cushing to Gordon Holmes, 22 May 1930, Holmes, Gordon, 1915-1936, The Harvey Williams Cushing Papers in the Yale University Library, Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University Library, Microfilms Series I, box 36, 703, Microfilm Reel 30.
83. Robert Lambert to Daniel O'Brien, 1 May 1930, RG 1.1, series 401, box 20, folder 265, RAC; the RF had learned of Holmes's interest in the position even before he had been officially invited, see Daniel O'Brien Diary, 1 March 1930, no page number provided, RAC.
84. Report of the Committee on Neurology, pp. 1-4, specifically p. 4; Correspondence Neurology Committee Nov. 1927 to Oct. 1930, The Lewis H. Weed Collection, AMCMA. 85. Report of the Committee to the Advisory Board of the Medical Faculty, 18 October 1930, Correspondence Neurology Committee Nov. 1927 to Oct. 1930, The Lewis H. Weed Collection, AMCMA. Report of Committee on Neurology, 17 April 1931, Correspondence Neurology Committee Dec. 1930-1934, The Lewis H. Weed Collection, AMCMA.
85. Report of the Committee to the Advisory Board of the Medical Faculty, 18 October 1930, Correspondence Neurology Committee Nov. 1927 to Oct. 1930, The Lewis H. Weed Collection, AMCMA. Report of Committee on Neurology, 17 April 1931, Correspondence Neurology Committee Dec. 1930-1934, The Lewis H. Weed Collection, AMCMA.
86. In a 1932 interview with Sir Thomas Lewis (1881-1945), Daniel O'Brien (1894 -1958), the Rockefeller Foundation's European medical sciences officer, learned that several significant figures in Britain considered it a mistake for "American Universities to try to import English and foreign neurologists. It would be best to try to train Americans of promise for considerable period of years in Europe." Daniel O'Brien Diary, 8 March 1932, p. 40, RAC.
87. Report of Committee on Neurology, 17 April 1931 (n. 85). Schaltenbrand had been recommended to Lewis Weed by Gordon Holmes as one of the "most important young men in neurology" in the world. Daniel O'Brien Diary, Visit to Baltimore 28 September 1932, p. 152, RAC.
88. Problems of Neurology, pp. 1-7, p. 2, Report of Committee on Neurology, 17 April 1931, Correspondence Neurology Committee Dec. 1930-1934, The Lewis H. Weed Collection, AMCMA.
89. Ibid., p. 2; On the First International Neurological Congress in Berne, see Proceedings of the First International Neurological Congress, Berne (Switzerland), August 31 to September 4, 1931 (Berne: Stämpfli, 1932), esp. pp. 375-76.
90. Problems of Neurology (n. 88), p. 7, AMCMA.
91. Lewis Weed to Alan Gregg, 11 June 1931, RG 1.1, Series 200, box 94, folder 1132, Johns Hopkins Neurology 1930-1935, RAC.
92. Ibid.
93. Alan Gregg's Diary, 28 October 1931, RG 1.1, Series 200, box 94, folder 1132 Johns Hopkins Neurology 1930-1935, RAC.
94. Ibid., 18 November 1931.
95. MM's Diary, 3 February 1932, RG 1.1, Series 200, box 94, folder 1132 Johns Hopkins Neurology 1930-1935, RAC.
96. Gregg's Diary, 11 April 1932 (n. 93).
97. Ibid.
98. April 16, 1930 (Oct 27 1937 rec.); 4/10/35 National Hospital for Diseases of the Nervous System London, RG 1.1, Series 401, box 20, folder 265, A National Hospital for Nervous Diseases, 1930-1933, RAC;see also Minutes of the Rockefeller Foundation, 10 April 1935, 35109-35112.
99. Lambert to O'Brien (n. 83); Lewis Weed to Robert Lambert, 5 November 1930; Lewis Weed to Robert A. Lambert, 12 November 1930; RG 1.1, Series 401, box 20, folder 265, A National Hospital for Nervous Diseases, 1930-1933, RAC.
100. The approximate total contribution between 1930 and 1942 from the Rockefeller Foundation for all of its projects in British neurology, both at the National Hospital and other places, was more than-1,000,000, partly because the British pound was valued at almost four dollars to one pound. Nowhere do their contributions to neurology seem to have been greater, including the Montreal Neurological Institute, although they deemed their overall contribution to mental health comparable to allocations "made or under consideration in Boston, Baltimore, and Chicago." Minutes of the Rockefeller Foundation (n. 98), 10 April 1935, p. 35109.
101. Walshe to Meyer, 6 March 1931, I/3947/1 Walshe, F. M. R., The Adolf Meyer Collection, AMCMA.
102. This point is contentious; yet it is worth noting that many of these men believed in the nobility of the practice of medicine and the inherent goodness of medical research. To suggest that they would have been jealous of the accomplishments at other institutions would, I think, misrepresent their views of progress in scientific and medical research.
103. Lewis Weed to Alan Gregg, 10 January 1935 RG 1.1, Series 401, RG 1.1, Series 200, box 94, folder 1132 Johns Hopkins Neurology 1930-1935, RAC; Alan Gregg to Lewis Weed, 31 July 1935; Gregg's Diary, 14 October 1935 (n. 93).
104. On Ford and Langworthy, see Weed to Gregg, 10 January 1935 (n. 103); on Rockefeller receptiveness, see: Lewis Weed to Alan Gregg, 20 December 1935; Alan Gregg to Lewis Weed, 3 March 1936, RG 1.1, Series 200, box 94, folder 1133 Johns Hopkins University neurology, 1936-1941, RAC. For Ford, see the essays "In Memory of Dr. Frank R. Ford," Johns Hopkins Med. J., 1971, 128: 100-109.
105. Gregg to Weed, 3 March 1936 (n. 104).
106. Orthello Langworthy to Alan Gregg, 29 October 1937 [enclosure: A Plan for the Development of Neurology at the Johns Hopkins University], RG 1.1, Series 200, box 94, folder 1133 Johns Hopkins University neurology, 1936-1941, RAC. The proposal can also be found in A Plan for the Development of Neurology at Johns Hopkins University, Neurology Committee Dec. 1934 -May 1940, The Lewis H. Weed Collection, AMCMA.
107. Alan Gregg to Orthello Langworthy, 7 December 1937, RG 1.1, Series 200, box 94, folder 1133 Johns Hopkins University neurology, 1936-1941, RAC.
108. Alan Gregg to Lewis Weed, 19 January 1940, RG 1.1, Series 200, box 94, folder 1133 Johns Hopkins University neurology, 1936-1941, RAC.
109. Ibid.
110. Lewis Weed to Alan Gregg, 20 January 1940, RG 1.1, Series 200, box 94, folder 1133 Johns Hopkins University neurology, 1936-1941, RAC.
111. Thomas Turner, Accounting of a Stewardship: The Johns Hopkins Medical School, 1957- 1968 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1969), p. 41.
112. On this point, see Farreras, Hannaway, and Harden, Mind, Brain, Body, and Behavior (n. 2), pp. 13-67.
113. For a similar view, see Peter Keating and Alberto Cambrosio, Biomedical Platforms: Realigning the Normal and the Pathological in Late-Twentieth Century Medicine (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2003), pp. 17-19.
114. H. Houston Merritt, Medicine in the Last Half of the Twentieth Century, Opening Address to Columbia University Medical Students, 17 September 1951, 4; Lectures, 1951-62, Merritt Papers, box 2, fo. 14, Columbia Health Centre Archives.
115. Lawrence, Rockefeller Money (n. 80), pp. 1-10.
116. Anon., "Sir Gordon Holmes: A Neurologist of World Repute," Times (London), 30 December 1965, p. 10.Idioms of Practice. British Neurology, 1875-1975. He has also published an article from another study titled Transnational Liaisons. The Physiologists in Second World War Britain and America.
117. "The key claim of any transnational approach is its central concern with movements, flows, and circulation, not simply as a theme or motif, but as an analytic set of methods which defines the endeavor itself": Isabel Hofmeyr, "AHR Conversation: On Transnational History," Am. Hist. Rev., 2006, 11: 1441-64, p. 1444.