Combination contraceptives: Effects on weight

Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews

Volumn , Issue 4, 2008, Pages

  Gallo, Maria F ^b   Lopez, Laureen M ^a   Grimes, David A ^a   Schulz, Kenneth F ^a   Helmerhorst, Frans M ^c  

^a FAMILY HEALTH INTERNATIONAL   (United States)

^b CENTERS FOR DISEASE CONTROL AND PREVENTION   (United States)

^c LEIDEN UNIVERSITY MEDICAL CENTER   (Netherlands)

Author keywords

Body weight *drug effects ; Contraceptives, oral, combined *adverse effects ; Contraceptives, oral, hormonal *adverse effects ; Female; Humans; Randomized controlled trials as topic; Weight gain

Indexed keywords

CHLORMADINONE ACETATE; CHLORMADINONE ACETATE PLUS MESTRANOL; CONTRACEPTIVE AGENT; DESOGESTREL PLUS ETHINYLESTRADIOL; DIENOGEST; DIENOGEST PLUS ETHINYLESTRADIOL; DIENOGEST PLUS ETHINYLESTRADIOL PLUS ESTRADIOL VALERATE; DIMESTHISTERONE PLUS ETHINYLESTRADIOL; DIMETHISTERONE; DROSPIRENONE PLUS ETHINYLESTRADIOL; ESTRADIOL CYPIONATE PLUS MEDROXYPROGESTERONE ACETATE; ESTRADIOL VALERATE PLUS ETHINYLESTRADIOL; ESTRADIOL VALERATE PLUS NORETHISTERONE ENANTATE; ETHINYLESTRADIOL; ETHINYLESTRADIOL PLUS ETONOGESTREL; ETHINYLESTRADIOL PLUS GESTODENE; ETHINYLESTRADIOL PLUS LEVONORGESTREL; ETHINYLESTRADIOL PLUS LYNESTRENOL; ETHINYLESTRADIOL PLUS NORELGESTROMIN; ETHINYLESTRADIOL PLUS NORETHISTERONE; ETHINYLESTRADIOL PLUS NORETHISTERONE ACETATE; ETHINYLESTRADIOL PLUS NORGESTIMATE; ETHINYLESTRADIOL PLUS NORGESTREL; ETHYNODIOL DIACETATE PLUS MESTRANOL; ETYNODIOL DIACETATE PLUS MESTRANOL; FERROUS FUMARATE; MESTRANOL; MESTRANOL PLUS NORETHISTERONE; PLACEBO; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG;

ABDOMINAL DISCOMFORT; BODY WEIGHT; CLINICAL TRIAL; DATA BASE; DEPRESSION; DRUG WITHDRAWAL; EMBASE; HEADACHE; HUMAN; MASTALGIA; MEDLINE; META ANALYSIS; MULTIPLE CYCLE TREATMENT; NAUSEA; NERVOUSNESS; REVIEW; SIDE EFFECT; SYSTEMATIC REVIEW; VOMITING; WEIGHT CHANGE; WEIGHT GAIN; WEIGHT REDUCTION;

EID: 55049095917     PISSN: 1469493X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD003987.pub3     Document Type: Review

References (97)

1. Aden 1998 {published and unpublished data} Aden U, Jung-Hoffmann C, Kuhl H. A randomized cross-over study on various hormonal parameters of two triphasic oral contraceptives. Contraception 1998;58:75-81.
2. Agoestina 1989 {published and unpublished data} Agoestina T, Sabarudin U, Hoppe G. A study comparing a gestoden triphasic formulation with a fixed combination OC. Advances in Contraception 1989;5:71-84.
3. Brill 1991 {published data only} Brill K, Muller C, Schnitker J, Albring M. The influence of different modern low-dose oral contraceptives on intermenstrual bleeding. Advances in Contraception 1991;7:51-61.
4. Brill 1996 {published and unpublished data} Brill K, Then A, Beisiegel U, Jene A, Wunsch C, Leidenberger F. Investigation of the influence of two low-dose monophasic oral contraceptives containing 20 micrograms ethinylestradiol/75 micrograms gestodene and 30 micrograms ethinylestradiol/75 micrograms gestodene, on lipid metabolism in an open randomized trial. Contraception 1996;54:291-7.
5. Burkman 2007 {published data only} * Burkman RT, Fisher AC, LaGuardia KD. Effects of low-dose oral contraceptives on body weight. Journal of Reproductive Medicine 2007;52:1030-4.
6. Hampton RM, Short M, Bieber E, Bouchard C, Ayotte N, Shangold G, et al.Comparison of a novel norgestimate/ethinyl estradiol oral contraceptive (Ortho Tri-Cyclen Lo) with the oral contraceptive Loestrin Fe 1/20. Contraception 2001;63:289-95.
7. Cachrimanidou 1993 {published data only} Cachrimanidou AC, Hellberg D, Nilsson S, Waldenstrom U, Olsson SE, Sikstrom B. Long-interval treatment regimen with a desogestrel-containing oral contraceptive. Contraception 1993;48:205-16.
8. Coenen 1996 {published data only} Coenen CM, Thomas CM, Borm GF, Hollanders JM, Rolland R. Changes in androgens during treatment with four low-dose contraceptives. Contraception 1996;53:171-6.
9. Coney 2001 {published data only} Coney P, Washenik K, Langley RGB, DiGiovanna JJ, Harrison DD. Weight change and adverse event incidence with a low-dose oral contraceptive: two randomized, placebo-controlled trials. Contraception 2001;63:297-302.
10. Dionne 1974 {published data only} Dionne P, Vickerson F. A double-blind comparison of two oral contraceptives containing 50 μg. and 30 μg. ethinyl estradiol. Current Therapeutic Research, Clinical and Experimental 1974;16:281-8.
11. Endrikat 1997 {published data only} Endrikat J, Muller U, Dusterberg B. A twelve-month comparative clinical investigation of two low-dose oral contraceptives containing 20 μg ethinylestradiol/75 μg gestodene and 30 μg ethinylestradiol/75 μg gestodene, with respect to efficacy, cycle control, and tolerance. Contraception 1997;55:131-7.
12. Endrikat 1999 {published data only} * Endrikat J, Dusterberg B, Ruebig A, Gerlinger C, Strowitzki T. Comparison of efficacy, cycle control, and tolerability of two low-dose oral contraceptives in a multicenter clinical study. Contraception 1999;60:269-74.
13. Endrikat J, Jaques MA, Mayerhofer M, Pelissier C, Muller U, Dusterberg B. A twelve-month comparative clinical investigation of two low-dose oral contraceptives containing 20 micrograms ethinylestradiol/75 micrograms gestodene and 20 micrograms ethinylestradiol/150 micrograms desogestrel, with respect to efficacy, cycle control and tolerance. Contraception 1995;52:229- 35.
14. Endrikat 2001a {published data only} Endrikat J, Cronin M, Gerlinger C, Ruebig A, Schmidt W, Dusterberg B. Open, multicenter comparison of efficacy, cycle control, and tolerability of a 23-day oral contraceptive regimen with 20 μg ethinyl estradiol and 75 μg gestodene and a 21-day regimen with 20 μg ethinyl estradiol and 150 μg desogestrel. Contraception 2001;64:201-7.
15. Endrikat 2001b {published and unpublished data} Endrikat J, Hite R, Bannemerschult R, Gerlinger C, Schmidt W. Multicenter, comparative study of cycle control, efficacy and tolerability of two low-dose oral contraceptives containing 20 μg ethinylestradiol/100 μg levonorgestrel and 20 μg ethinylestradiol/500 μg norethisterone. Contraception 2001;64:3-10.
16. Foulon 2001 {published and unpublished data} Foulon T, Payen N, Laporte F, Bijaoui S, Dupont G, Roland F, et al.Effects of two low-dose oral contraceptives containing ethinylestradiol and either desogestrel or levonorgestrel on serum lipids and lipoproteins with particular regard to LDL size. Contraception 2001;64:11-6.
17. Franchini 1995 {published and unpublished data} Franchini M, Caruso C, Nigrelli S, Poggiali C. Evaluation of body composition during low-dose estrogen oral contraceptives treatment. Acta Europaea Fertilitatis 1995;26:69-73.
18. Goldzieher 1971a {published data only} Goldzieher JW, Moses LE, Averkin E, Scheel C, Taber BZ. A placebo-controlled double-blind crossover investigation of the side effects attributed to oral contraceptives. Fertility and Sterility 1971;22:609-23.
19. Gruber 2006 {published data only} Gruber DM, Huber JC, Melis GB, Stagg C, Parke S, Marr J. A comparison of the cycle control, safety, and efficacy profile of a 21-day regimen of ethinylestradiol 20μg and drospirenone 3mg with a 21-day regimen of ethinylestradiol 20μg and desogestrel 1507mu;g. Treatments in Endocrinology 2006;5:115-21.
20. Halbe 1998 {published data only} Halbe HW, de Melo NR, Bahamondes L, Petracco A, Lemgruber M, de Andrade RP, et al.Efficacy and acceptability of two monophasic oral contraceptives containing ethinylestradiol and either desogestrel or gestodene. European Journal of Contraception & Reproductive Health Care 1998;3:113-20.
21. Kaunitz 2000 {published and unpublished data} Kaunitz AM. Efficacy, cycle control, and safety of two triphasic oral contraceptives: Cyclessa (desogestrel/ethinyl estradiol) and Ortho-Novum 7/7/7 (norethindrone/ethinyl estradiol): a randomized clinical trial. Contraception 2000;61:295-302.
22. Kirkman 1994 {published data only} * Kirkman RJ, Pedersen JH, Fioretti P, Roberts HE. Clinical comparison of two low-dose oral contraceptives, Minulet and Mercilon, in women over 30 years of age. Contraception 1994;49:33-46.
23. Kirkman RJE. Clinical comparison of two low-dose oral contraceptives in women older than 30 years. Advances in Contraception 1991;7:63-76.
24. Knopp 2001 {published data only} Knopp RH, Broyles FE, Cheung M, Moore K, Marcovina S, Chandler WL. Comparison of the lipoprotein, carbohydrate, and hemostatic effects of phasic oral contraceptives containing desogestrel or levonorgestrel. Contraception 2001;63:1-11.
25. Koetsawang 1977 {published data only} Koetsawang S, Srisupandit S, Srivannaboon S, Bhiraleus P. Comparative clinical trial of two oral contraceptives with a low - estrogen content. Journal of the Medical Association of Thailand 1977;60:368-73.
26. Koetsawang 1995 {published data only} Koetsawang S, Charoenvisal C, Banharnsupawat L, Singhakovin S, Kaewsuk O, Punnahitanont S. Multicenter trial of two monophasic oral contraceptives containing 30 mcg ethinylestradiol and either desogestrel or gestodene in Thai women. Contraception 1995;51:225-9.
27. Lachnit-Fixson 1984 {published data only} Lachnit-Fixson U, Aydinlik S, Lehnert J. Clinical comparison between amonophasic preparation and a triphasic preparation. In: Rolland R, Harrison RF, Bonnar J, Thompson W editor(s). Advances in fertility control and the treatment of sterility: the proceedings of a special symposium held at the XIth World Congress on Fertility and Sterility, Dublin, June 1983. Hingham, MA: MTP Press, 1984:71-9.
28. Liukko 1987 {published data only} * Liukko P, Erkkola R, Gronroos M, Lammintausta R. Plasma renin activity, blood pressure and body weight during two years' oral contraception with two different low-estrogen combinations. Annales Chirurgiae et Gynaecologiae Supplementum 1987;202:45-9.
29. Liukko P, Erkkola R, Lammintausta R, Gronroos M, Kloosterboer HJ. Blood glucose, serum insulin, serum growth hormone and serum glycosylated proteins during two years' oral contraception with low-estrogen combinations. Annales Chirurgiae et Gynaecologiae Supplementum 1987;202:50-53.
30. Loudon 1990 {published data only} Loudon NB, Kirkman RJE, Dewsbury JA. A double-blind comparison of the efficacy and acceptability of Femodene and Microgynon-30. European Journal of Obstetrics, Gynecology, and Reproductive Biology 1990;34:257-66.
31. Miller 2001 {published data only} Miller L, Notter KM. Menstrual reduction with extended use of combination oral contraceptive pills: randomized controlled trial. Obstetrics & Gynecology 2001;98:771-8.
32. Milsom 2006 {published data only} Ahrendt H-J, Nisand I, Bastianelli C, Gómez AM, Gemzell-Danielsson K, Urdl W, et al.Efficacy, acceptability and tolerability of the combined contraceptive ring, NuvaRing, compared with an oral contraceptive containing 3 μg of ethinyl estradiol and 3 mg of drospirenone. Contraception 2006;74:451-7.
33. * Milsom I, Lete I, Bjertnaes A, Rokstad K, Lindh I, Gruber CJ, et al.Effects on cycle control and bodyweight of the combined contraceptive ring, NuvaRing, versus an oral contraceptive containing 30 μg ethinyl estradiol and 3 mg drospirenone. Human Reproduction 2006;21:2304-11.
34. Oddsson 2005 {published data only} Oddsson K, Leifels-Fischer B, de Melo NR, Wiel-Masson D, Benedetto C, Verhoeven CHJ, et al.Efficacy and safety of a contraceptive vaginal ring (NuvaRing) compared with a combined oral contraceptive: a 1-year randomized trial. Contraception 2005;71:176-82.
35. Oelkers 1995 {published data only} Oelkers W, Foidart JM, Dombrovicz N, Welter A, Heithecker R. Effects of a new oral contraceptive containing an antimineralocorticoid progestogen, drospirenone, on the renin-aldosterone system, body weight, blood pressure, glucose tolerance, and lipid metabolism. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 1995;80:1816-21.
36. Oelkers 2000 {published data only} Oelkers W, Helmerhorst FM, Wuttke W, Heithecker R. Effect of an oral contraceptive containing drospirenone on the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system in healthy female volunteers. Gynecological Endocrinology 2000;14:204-13.
37. Rosenbaum 2000 {published data only} Rosenbaum P, Schmidt W, Helmerhorst FM, Wuttke W, Rossmanith W, Freundl F, et al.Inhibition of ovulation by a novel progestogen (drospirenone) alone or in combination with ethinylestradiol. European Journal of Contraception & Reproductive Health Care 2000;5:16-24.
38. Sang 1995 {published and unpublished data} Sang GW, Shao QX, Ge RS, Ge JL, Chen JK, Song S, et al.A multicentred phase III comparative clinical trial of Mesigyna, Cyclofem and injectable No. 1 given monthly by intramuscular injection to Chinese women. Contraception 1995;51:167-83.
39. Serfaty 1998 {published data only} Serfaty D, Vree ML. A comparison of the cycle control and tolerability of two ultra low- dose oral contraceptives containing 20 micrograms ethinylestradiol and either 150 micrograms desogestrel or 75 micrograms gestodene. European Journal of Contraception & Reproductive Health Care 1998;3:179-89.
40. Sibai 2001 {published data only} * Sibai B, Odlind V, Meador M, Shangold G, Fisher A, Creasy G. A comparative assessment of ORTHO EVRA™/EVRA™ to placebo patch effects on body weight. Fertility and Sterility 2001;76:S188.
41. Sibai BM, Odlind V, Meador ML, Shangold GA, Fisher AC, Creasy GW. A comparative and pooled analysis of the safety and tolerability of the contraceptive patch (Ortho Evra/Evra). Fertility and Sterility 2002;77(Suppl 2):S19-26.
42. Spellacy 1970 {published data only} Spellacy WN, Birk SA. The development of elevated blood pressure while using oral contraceptives: a preliminary report of a prospective study. Fertility and Sterility 1970;21:301-6.
43. Spona 1996 {published and unpublished data} Spona J, Elstein M, Feichtinger W, Sullivan H, Ludicke F, Muller U, et al.Shorter pill-free interval in combined oral contraceptives decreases follicular development. Contraception 1996;54:71-7.
44. Stewart 2005 {published data only} Stewart FH, Kaunitz AM, LaGuardia KD, Karvois DL, Fisher AC, Friedman AJ. Extended use of transdermal norelgestromin/ethinyl estradiol: a randomized trial. Obstetrics & Gynecology 2005;105:1389-96.
45. Teichmann 1995 {published and unpublished data} Teichmann AT, Brill K, Albring M, Schnitker J, Wojtynek P, Kustra E. The influence of the dose of ethinylestradiol in oral contraceptives on follicle growth. Gynecology and Endocrinology 1995;9:299-305.
46. Van der Does 1995 {published and unpublished data} Van der Does J, Exalto N, Dieben T, Bennink HC. Ovarian activity suppression by two different low-dose triphasic oral contraceptives. Contraception 1995;52:357-61.
47. Weisberg 1999 {published data only} Weisberg E, Fraser IS, Mishell DR, Lacarra M, Darney P, Jackanicz TM. A comparative study of two contraceptive vaginal rings releasing norethindrone acetate and differing doses of ethinyl estradiol. Contraception 1999;59:305-10.
48. Wiegratz 1995 {published and unpublished data} Wiegratz I, Jung-Hoffman C, Kuhl H. Effect of two oral contraceptives containing ethinylestradiol and gestodene or norgestimate upon androgen parameters and serum binding proteins. Contraception 1995;51:341-6.
49. Wiegratz 2002 {published and unpublished data} Wiegratz I, Lee JH, Kutschera E, Bauer HH, von Hayn C, Moore C, et al.Effect of dienogest-containing oral contraceptives on lipid metabolism. Contraception 2002;65:223-229.
50. Wiik 1993 {published data only} Wiik P, Nordby J, Paulsen JE. Effect of norethisterone and levonorgestrel in low-dose multiphasic oral contraceptives on serum lipids. Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica 1993;72:550-5.
51. Winkler 1996 {published and unpublished data} Winkler UH, Schindler AE, Endrikat J, Dusterberg B. A comparative study of the effects of the hemostatic system of two monophasic gestodene oral contraceptives containing 20 micrograms and 30 micrograms ethinylestradiol. Contraception 1996;53:75-84.
52. Worsley 1980 {published data only} Worsley A. A prospective study of the effects of the progestagen content of oral contraceptives on measures of affect, automatization, and perceptual restructuring ability. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 1980;67:289-96.
53. Bonny 2006 {published data only} Bonny AE, Ziegler J, Harvey R, Debanne SM, Secic M, Cromer BA. Weight gain in obese and nonobese adolescent girls initiating depot medroxyprogesterone, oral contraceptive pills, or no hormonal contraceptive method. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine 2006;160:40-5.
54. Boonyarangkul 2007 {published data only} Boonyarangkul A, Taneepanischskul S. Comparison of cycle contral and side effects between transdermal contraceptive patch and an oral contraceptive in women older than 35 years. Journal of the Medical Association of Thailand 2007;90:1715-9.
55. Elkind-Hirsch 2007 {published data only} Elkind-Hirsch KE, Darensbourg C, Ogden B, Ogden LF, Hindelang P. Contraceptive vaginal ring use for women has less adverse metabolic effects than an oral contraceptive. Contraception 2007;76:348-56.
56. Endrikat 2007 {published data only} Endrikat J, Sandri M, Gerlinger C, Rubig A, Schmidt W, Fortier M. A Canadian multicentre prospective study on the effects of an oral contraceptive containing 3 mg drospirenone and 30 μg ethinyl oestradiol on somatic and psychological symptoms related to water retention and on body weight. European Journal of Contraception and Reproductive Health Care 2007;12:220-8.
57. Gaspard 2003 {published data only} Gaspard U, Scheen A, Endrikat J, Buicu C, Lefebvre P, Gerlinger C, et al.A randomized study over 13 cycles to assess the influence of oral contraceptives containing ethinylestradiol combined with drospirenone or desogestrel on carbohydrate metabolism. Contraception 2003;67:423-9.
58. Grinspoon 2003 {published data only} Grinspoon SK, Friedman AJ, Miller KK, Lippman J, Olson WH, Warren MP. Effects of a triphasic combination oral contraceptive containing norgestimate/ethinyl estradiol on biochemical markers of bone metabolism in young women with osteopenia secondary to hypothalamic amenorrhea. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism 2003;88:3651-6.
59. Machado 2006 {published data only} Machado RB, Tachotti F, Cavenague G, Maia E. Effects of two different oral contraceptives on total body water: a randomized study. Contraception 2006;73:344-7.
60. Miller 2003 {published data only} Miller L, Hughes JP. Continuous combination oral contraceptive pills to eliminate withdrawal bleeding: a randomized trial. Obstetrics & Gynecology 2003;101:653-61.
61. Miller 2005 {published data only} Miller L, Verhoeven CH, Hout J. Extended regimens of the contraceptive vaginal ring: a randomized trial. Obstetrics and Gynecology 2005;106:473-82.
62. O'Connell 2005 {published data only} O'Connell KJ, Osborne LM, Westhoff C. Measured and reported weight change for women using a vaginal contraceptive ring vs. a low-dose oral contraceptive. Contraception 2005;72:323-7.
63. Westhoff C, Osborne LM, Schafer JE, Morroni C. Bleeding patterns after immediate initiation of an oral compared with a vaginal hormonal contraceptive. Obstetrics & Gynecology 2005;106:89-96.
64. O'Connell 2007 {published data only} O'Connell K, Davis AR, Kerns J. Oral contraceptives: side effects and depression in adolescent girls. Contraception 2007;75:299-304.
65. Sabatini 2006 {published data only} Sabatini R, Cagiano R. Comparison profiles of cycle control, side effects and sexual satisfaction of three hormonal contraceptives. Contraception 2006;74:220-3.
66. Sangthawan 2005 {published data only} Sangthawan M, Taneepanichskul S. A comparative study of monophasic oral contraceptives containing either drospirenone 3 mg or levonorgestrel 150 μg on premenstrual symptoms. Contraception 2005;71:1-7.
67. Skouby 2005 {published data only} Skouby SO, Endrikat J, Dusterberg B, Schmidt W, Gerlinger C, Wessel J, et al.A 1-year randomized study to evaluate the effects of a dose reduction in oral contraceptives on lipids and carbohydrate metabolism: 20 μg ethniyl estradiol combined with 100 μg levonorgestrel. Contraception 2005;71:111-7.
68. Suthipongse 2004 {published data only} Suthipongse W, Taneepanichskul S. An open-label randomized comparative study of oral contraceptives between medications containing 3 μg drospirenone/30 μg ethinylestradiol and 150 μg levonogestrel/30 μg ethinylestradiol in Thai women. Contraception 2004;69:23-6.
69. Taneepanichskul 2002 {published data only} Taneepanichskul S, Kriengsinyot R, Jaisamrarn U. A comparison of cycle control, efficacy, and side effects among healthy Thai women between two low-dose oral contraceptives containing 20 μg ethinylestradiol/75 μg gestodene (Meliane) and 30 μg ethinylestradiol/75 μg gestodene (Gynera). Contraception 2002;66:407-9.
70. Tantbirojn 2002 {published data only} Tantbirojn P, Taneepanichskul S. Clinical comparative study of oral contraceptives containing 30 μg ethinylestradiol/150 μg levonorgestrel, and 35 μg ethinylestradiol/250 μg norgestimate in Thai women. Contraception 2002;66:401-5.
71. Veres 2004 {published data only} Veres S, Miller L, Burington B. A comparison between the vaginal ring and oral contraceptives. Obstetrics and Gynecology 2004;104:555-63.
72. Westhoff 2007 {published data only} Westhoff C, Heartwell S, Edwards S, Zieman M, Cushman L, Robilotto C, et al.Initiation of oral contraceptives using a quick start compared with a conventional start. Obstetrics & Gynecology 2007;109:1270-6.
73. Westhoff CL, Heartwell S, Edwards S, Zieman M, Stuart G, Cwiak C, et al.Oral contraceptive discontinuation: do side effects matter?. American Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology 2007;196:412.e1-6; discussion 412.e6-7.
74. Winkler 2004 {published data only} Winkler UH, Ferguson H, Mulders JAPA. Cycle control, quality of life and acne with two low-dose oral contraceptives containing 20 μg ethinylestradiol. Contraception 2004;79:469-76.
75. Corvol 1983 Corvol P, Elkik F, Feneant M, Oblin ME, Michaud A, Claire M, et al.Effect of progesterone and progestins on water and salt metabolism. In: CW Bardin, E Milgrom, P Mauvais-Jarvis editor(s). Progesterone and Progestins. New York: Raven Press, 1983.
76. Emans 1987 Emans SJ, Grace E, Woods ER, Smith DE, Kelin K, Merola J. Adolescents' compliance with the use of oral contraceptives. Journal of the American Medical Association 1987;257:3377-3381.
77. Flegal 2000 Flegal KM, Troiano RP. Changes in the distribution of body mass index of adults and children in the US population. International Journal of Obesity and Related Metabolic Disorders 2000;24:807-18.
78. Gaudet 2004 Gaudet LM, Kives S, Hahn, Reid RL. What women believe about oral contraceptives and the effect of counseling. Contraception 2004;69:31-36.
79. Higgins 2008 Higgins JPT, Green S (editors). Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions, Version 5.0.0 [updated February 2008]. The Cochrane Collaboration 2008; Vol. available from www.cochrane-handbook.org.
80. IOM 1996 Institute of Medicine. Contraceptive research and development: looking to the future. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1996.
81. Juni 2002 Juni P, Holenstein F, Sterne J, Bartlett C, Egger M. Direction and impact of language bias in meta-analyses of controlled trials: empirical study. International Journal of Epidemiology 2002;31:115-23.
82. Le 2003 Le MG, Laveissiere MN, Pelissier C. Factors associated with weight gain in women using oral contraceptives: results of a French 2001 opinion poll survey conducted on 1665 women. Gynecologie, Obstetrique & Fertilite 2003;31:230-9.
83. Moher 2000 Moher D, Pham B, Klassen TP, Schulz KF, Berlin JA, Jadad AR, et al.What contributions do languages other than English make on the results of meta-analyses?. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology 2000;53:964-72.
84. Nelson 2007 Nelson AL. Combined oral contraceptives. In: Hatcher RA, Trussell J, Nelson AL, Cates W, Stewart FH, Kowal D, et al. editor(s). Contraceptive Technology. 19th Edition. New York: Ardent Media, Inc., 2007:193-270.
85. NIH 2008 US National Institutes of Health (NIH). ClinicalTrials.gov. http://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/home (accessed 20 June 2008).
86. Oddens 1999 Oddens BJ. Women's satisfaction with birth control: a population survey of physical and psychological effects of oral contraceptives, intrauterine devices, condoms, natural family planning, and sterilization among 1466 women. Contraception 1999;59:277-286.
87. Rosenberg 1995 Rosenberg MJ, Waugh MS, Meehan TE. Use and misuse of oral contraceptives: risk indicators for poor pill taking and discontinuation. Contraception 1995;51:283-8.
88. Rosenberg 1998 Rosenberg M. Weight change with oral contraceptive use and during the menstrual cycle. Results of daily measurements. Contraception 1998;58:345-9.
89. Rothman 1998 Rothman KJ, Greenland S. Approaches to statistical analysis. In: RJ Rothman, S Greenland editor(s). Modern Epidemiology. 2nd Edition. New York: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, 1998:183-99.
90. Schulz 1995 Schulz KF, Chalmers I, Hayes RJ, Altman DG. Empirical evidence of bias. Dimensions of methodological quality associated with estimates of treatment effects in controlled trials. Journal of the American Medical Association 1995;273:408-12.
91. Schulz 2002a Schulz KF, Grimes DA. Allocation concealment in randomised trials: defending against deciphering. Lancet 2002;359:614-700.
92. Schulz 2002b Schulz KF, Grimes DA. Blinding in randomised trials: hiding who got what. Lancet 2002;359:696-700.
93. Turner 1994 Turner R. Most British women use reliable contraceptive methods, but many fear health risks from use. Family Planning Perspectives 1994;26:183-4.
94. Weiss 1998 Weiss NS. Clinical epidemiology. In: RJ Rothman, S Greenland editor(s). Modern Epidemiology. 2nd Edition. New York: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, 1998:519-28.
95. WHO 2008 World Health Organization (WHO). International Clinical Trials Registry Platform (ICTRP). http://www.who.int/ictrp/search/en/ (accessed 20 June 2008).
96. Wysocki 2000 Wysocki S. A survey of American women regarding the use of oral contraceptives and weight gain [abstract]. International Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics 2000; Vol. 70:114.
97. Gallo 2004 Gallo M, Grimes D, Schulz K, Helmerhorst F. Combination contraceptives: effects on weight. Obstetrics & Gynecology 2004;103:359-73.