Farming fish for the future

Worldwatch Paper

Volumn , Issue 176, 2008, Pages 1-42

  Halweil, Brian ^a  

^a STANFORD UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CLUPEIDAE; CYPRINIDAE; DECAPODA (CRUSTACEA); ENGRAULIDAE; MALLOTUS (FISH); MORONE; SCOMBRIDAE; SUIDAE; TILAPIA;

EID: 53649108528     PISSN: 02708019     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Editorial

References (250)

1. Thierry Chopin, University of New Brunswick, St. John, New Brunswick, Canada, discussion with author, 23 March 2008;
2. Shawn Robinson, University of New Brunswick, St. John, New Brunswick, Canada, discussion with author, 17 April 2008.
3. See also Thierry Chopin, "Integrated Multi-trophic Aquaculture (IMTA) Will Also Have Its Place When Aquaculture Moves to the Open Ocean," Fish Farmer, March/April 2008
4. and Susan Llewelyn Leach, "Growing Seaweed Sustainably," Gulf of Maine Times, Winter/Spring 2008.
5. Chopin, discussion with author, op. cit. note 1.
6. Ibid.
7. United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), FAOSTAT electronic database, faostat.fao.org, updated May 2008.
8. FAO, The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2006 (Rome: 2007).
9. World Bank, Changing the Face of the Waters: The Promise and Challenge of Sustainable Aquaculture (Washington, DC: 2007), pp. 1-2.
10. Marie Christine Monfort, Markets and Marketing of Aquaculture Finfish in Europe: Focus on the Mediterranean Basin, report prepared for FAO Fisheries division (Rome: April 2006), pp. 22-23;
11. Josh Eagle, Rosamond Naylor, and Whitney Smith, "Why Farm Salmon Outcompete Fishery Salmon," Marine Policy, May 2004, pp. 259-70.
12. Figure 1 from FAO, FISHSTAT electronic database, www.fao.org/fishery/ topic/16073, viewed March 2008.
13. Ibid.
14. FAO, op. cit. note 8.
15. FAO, op. cit. note 4.
16. John Volpe, School of Environmental Studies, University of Victoria, British Columbia, Canada, discussion with author, 3 April 2008.
17. Projection from FAO, op. cit. note 5;
18. other statistics from FAO, op. cit. note 8.
19. U.S. Department of Commerce, "Development of a Code of Conduct for Responsible Aquaculture in the United States Exclusive Economic Zone. Public Workshops, 24 August 2000," Federal Register, Vol. 65, No. 165 (2000), pp. 51591-92;
20. "U.S. Department of Commerce, "U.S. Department of Commerce Aquaculture Policy," www.nmfs.noaa.gov/trade/DOCAQpolicy.htm, 8 April 2001.
21. Carlos M. Duarte, Nùria Marbá, and Marianne Holmer, "Rapid Domestication of Marine Species," Science, 20 April 2007, pp. 382-83.
22. Melba G. Bondad-Reantaso et al., "Disease and Health Management in Asian Aquaculture," Veterinary Parasitology, 30 September 2005, pp. 249-72.
23. Figure 2 from FAO, op. cit. note 8.
24. Chopin, discussion with author, op. cit. note 1.
25. Ibid.
26. Ibid.
27. Ibid.
28. Janice Harvey and Inka Milewski, Salmon Aquaculture in the Bay of Fundy: An Unsustainable industry (Fredericton, New Brunswick, Canada: Conservation Council of New Brunswick, September 2007), at www.conservationcouncil.ca/files/PDF/Aquaculture/Salmon_Aquaculture.pdf.
29. Robinson, op. cit. note 1.
30. Chopin, discussion with author, op. cit. note 1.
31. Ibid.
32. Ibid.
33. World Bank, op. cit. note 6.
34. Malcolm C.M. Beveridge and David C. Little, "The History of Aquaculture in Traditional Societies," in Barry Costa-Pierce, ed., Ecological Aquaculture. The Evolution of the Blue Revolution (Oxford, UK: Blackwell, 2003), p. 7.
35. Ibid.
36. Ibid.
37. Ibid., p. 12.
38. Ibid., p. 11.
39. Ibid., p. 13.
40. Ibid., p. 13.
41. Ibid., p. 14.
42. Ibid., p. 30.
43. Ibid., p. 8.
44. Ibid., p. 35.
45. WorldFish Center, "GIFT Fish," www.worldfishcenter.org/cms/ list_article.aspx?catID=32&ddlID=76, updated 28 November 2997.
46. WorldFish Center, "Rice-Fish Culture: A Recipe for Higher Production," www.worldfishcenter.org/cms/list_article.aspx?catID= 32&ddlID=78, updated 28 November 2007.
47. World Bank, Changing the Face of the Waters: The Promise and Challenge of Sustainable Aquaculture (Washington, DC: 2007).
48. Beveridge and Little, op. cit. note 1, p. 17.
49. Ibid., p. 11.
50. Figure 3 from United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), FISHSTAT electronic database, www.fao.org/fishery/topic/16073, updated March 2008.
51. Ibid.
52. Ibid.;
53. Albert G.J. Tacon, "State of Information on Salmon Aquaculture Feed and the Environment," report prepared for WWF-US, unpublished report shared with author.
54. FAO, op. cit. note 17.
55. Ibid.
56. Rebecca Goldburg, Environmental Defense Fund, New York, NY, discussion with author, 14 March 2008;
57. FAO, op. cit. note 17.
58. Beveridge and Little, op. cit. note 1, p. 37.
59. Sidebar 1 from the following sources: M. Beveridge, Cage Aquaculture (Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishers, Fishing News Books, 1996);
60. M. MacGarvin, "Scotland's Secret? Aquaculture, Nutrient Pollution, Eutrophication, and Toxic Blooms," Modus Vivendi (Perth, Scotland: WWF Scotland, 2000);
61. Rosamond Naylor and Marshall Burke, "Aquaculture and Ocean Resources: Raising Tigers of the Sea:" Annu. Rev. Environ. Resour., Vol. 30 (2005), pp. 185-218;
62. spending on disease and losses from Melba G. Bondad-Reantaso et al., "Disease and Health Management in Asian Aquaculture," Veterinary Parasitology, 30 September 2005, pp. 249-72;
63. Martin Krkošaek et al., "Epizootics of Wild Fish Induced by Farm Fish:" Proceedings of the National Academies of Sciences, 17 October 2006, pp. 15506-10;
64. John Volpe, School of Environmental Studies, University of Victoria, British Columbia, Canada, discussion with author, 3 April 2008;
65. tuna disease from John P. Volpe, "Dollars Without Sense: The Bait for Big-Money Tuna Ranching Around the World:" BioScience, April 2005, pp. 301-02.
66. Beveridge and Little, op. cit. note 1, p. 34.
67. FAO, op. cit. note 17;
68. Peter Tyedmers et al., "Biophysical Sustainability and Approaches to Marine Aquaculture Development Policy in the United States," a report to the Marine Aquaculture Task Force (Takoma Park, MD: Marine Aquaculture Task Force, February 2007).
69. Henning Roed, WWF-Norway, discussion with author, 26 March 2008; SeaWeb Aquaculture Resources, "SeaWeb History of Salmon Farming," www.seaweb.org/resources/aquaculturecenter, viewed 10 April 2008;
70. Naylor and Burke, op. cit. note 24;
71. Dietrich Sahrhage and Johannes Lundbeck, A History of Fishing (Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1992).
72. Naylor and Burke, op. cit. note 24.
73. Ibid.
74. Roed, op. cit. note 27.
75. Ibid.
76. Ibid.
77. World Bank, op. cit. note 14.
78. Table 1 from ibid.
79. John P. Volpe, "'Salmon Sovereignty' and the Dilemma of Intensive Atlantic Salmon Aquaculture Development in British Columbia," in C.C. Parrish, N.J. Turner, and S.M. Solberg, eds., Resetting the Kitchen Table: Food Security, Culture, Health and Resilience in Coastal Communities (Hauppauge, NY: Nova Science Publishers, Inc., 2006).
80. Naylor and Burke, op. cit. note 24, p. 190.
81. Ibid.
82. Tacon, op. cit. note 19.
83. Naylor and Burke, op. cit. note 24, pp. 209-10.
84. Volpe, op. cit. note 35.
85. Ibid.;
86. Volpe, discussion with author, op. cit. note 24.
87. Ussif Rashid Sumaila, John Volpe, and Yajie Liu, "Potential Economic Benefits from Sablefish Farming in British Columbia," Marine Policy, Vol. 31 (2007), pp. 81-84.
88. Volpe, "Dollars Without Sense...," op. cit. note 24.
89. Volpe, op. cit. note 35.
90. Beveridge and Little, op. cit. note 1, p. 25.
91. Naylor and Burke, op. cit. note 24.
92. Sidebar 2 from the following sources: Bondad-Reantaso et al., op. cit. note 24;
93. Roed, op. cit. note 27;
94. Naylor and Burke, op. cit. note 24;
95. "Is Farmed Fish Not All Bad? Kona Blue Raises Its Fish With Sustainability in Mind," The Daily Green, www.thedailygreen.com, 3 April 2008;
96. Neil Sims, President/Co-founder, Kona Blue, Kailua-Kona, HI, discussion with author, 26 April 2008;
97. Nick Joy, Managing Director, Loch Duart Ltd., "Sustainability and the Future of Seafood," presentation at Seafood Summit 2006, Seattle, WA, 29-31 January 2006;
98. Canadian Science Advisory Secretariat, "Assessing Potential Technologies for Closed Containment Saltwater Salmon Aquaculture," Science Advisory Report 2008/001 (Ottawa, ON: Fisheries and Oceans Canada, March 2008);
99. Chris Mann, Senior Officer and Director, Campaign for Healthy Oceans, Pew Environment Group, Washington, DC, discussion with author, 19 December 2007.
100. World Bank, Changing the Face of the Waters: The Promise and Challenge of Sustainable Aquaculture (Washington, DC: 2007).
101. Ibid.
102. Ibid.
103. Sena De Silva, Network of Aquaculture Centres in Asia-Pacific (NACA), Bangkok, Thailand, discussion with author, 4 February 2008.
104. United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), FISHSTAT electronic database, www.fao.org/fishery/topic/16073, updated March 2008.
105. Figure 4 from ibid.
106. Ibid.
107. FAO, "Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries," www.fao.org /docrep/005/v9878e/v9878e00.HTM.
108. Rosamond Naylor and Marshall Burke, "Aquaculture and Ocean Resources: Raising Tigers of the Sea," Annu. Rev. Environ. Resour., Vol. 30 (2005), pp. 185-218.
109. Jackie Alder and Daniel Pauly, "On the Multiple Uses of Forage Fish: From Ecosystems to Markets," Fisheries Centre Research Reports (Sea Around Us Project, University of British Columbia), Vol 14, No. 3 (2006), pp. vii, 3.
110. Albert G.J. Tacon, "State of Information on Salmon Aquaculture Feed and the Environment," report prepared for WWF-US, unpublished report shared with author.
111. John P. Volpe, "Dollars Without Sense: The Bait for Big-Money Tuna Ranching Around the World," BioScience, April 2005, pp. 301-02.
112. Naylor and Burke, op. cit. note 9, p. 193.
113. Ibid.
114. Ibid., p. 195;
115. Volpe, op. cit. note 12.
116. Jose A. Zertuche-Gonzalez et al., "Marine Science Assessment of Capture-based Tuna (Thunnus orientalis) Aquaculture in the Ensenda Region of Northern Baja California, Mexico," Final Report of the Binational Scientific Team to the Packard Foundation (Stamford, CT: Department of Ecology & Evolutionary Biology, University of Connecticut, 2008).
117. Ibid.
118. Tacon, op. cit. note 11.
119. Ibid.
120. Ibid.
121. Ibid.
122. Ibid.;
123. Albert Tacon, Aquaculture Research Director, Aquatic Farms Ltd., Kaneohe, HI, discussion with author, 8 January 2008.
124. Tacon, op. cit. note 11.
125. Ibid. Sidebar 3 from the following sources: Patricia Majluf, University of Lima, Peru, discussion with author, 2 February 2008;
126. Daniel Pauly, "Babette's Feast in Lima," The Sea Around Us Project Newsletter, November/December 2006;
127. Danielle Nierenberg and Brian Halweil, "Farming the Cities," in Worldwatch Institute, State of the World 2007 (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 2008.)
128. Tacon, op. cit. note 11.
129. Neil Sims, President/Co-founder, Kona Blue, Kailua-Kona, HI, discussion with author, 26 April 2008.
130. Tacon, op. cit. note 11.
131. Ibid.
132. Peter Tyedmers et al., "Biophysical Sustainability and Approaches to Marine Aquaculture Development Policy in the United States," a report to the Marine Aquaculture Task Force (Takoma Park, MD: Marine Aquaculture Task Force, February 2007), p. 27.
133. Phaedra Doukakis, Pew Institute for Ocean Science, New York, NY, discussion with author, 12 November 2007; "Increase in Caviar Quota Sparks Anger," fishupdate.com, 2 June 2008.
134. David Streitfeld, "As Price of Corn Rises, Catfish Farms Dry Up," New York Times, 18 July 2008.
135. Tacon, op. cit. note 11.
136. N. Pelletier and P. Tyedmers, "Feeding Farmed Salmon: Is Organic Better?" Aquaculture, Vol. 272 (2007), pp. 399-416.
137. Naylor and Burke, op. cit. note 9.
138. Ibid.
139. Tacon, op. cit. note 11.
140. Ibid.
141. Ibid.
142. Ibid.
143. World Bank, op. cit. note 1, p. 32.
144. Tyedmers et al., op. cit. note 29;
145. C. Folke, "Energy Economy of Salmon Aquaculture in the Baltic Sea," Environmental Management, Vol. 12, No. 4 (1988), pp. 525-37;
146. M. Troell et al., "Aquaculture and Energy Use," in C. Cleveland, ed., Encyclopedia of Energy, Vol. 1 (San Diego: Elsevier, 2004), pp. 97-108.
147. Tyedmers et al., op. cit. note 29.
148. Table 2 from Barry A. Costa-Pierce, "Ecology as the Paradigm for the Future of Aquaculture, in Barry Costa-Pierce, ed., Ecological Aquaculture: The Evolution of the Blue Revolution (Oxford, UK: Blackwell, 2003), pp. 339-72.
149. Tyedmers et al., op. cit. note 29.
150. Ibid.
151. Ibid.
152. Malcolm C.M. Beveridge and David C. Little, "The History of Aquaculture in Traditional Societies," in Costa-Pierce, ed., op. cit. note 43, p. 5.
153. Pelletier and Tyedmers, op. cit. note 33.
154. Tyedmers et al., op. cit. note 29.
155. Ibid.
156. Don Staniford, Pure Salmon Campaign, Oslo, Norway, discussion with author, 21 November 2007.
157. See also www.puresalmon.org.
158. Ibid.
159. Ibid.
160. Melba G. Bondad-Reantaso et al., "Disease and Health Management in Asian Aquaculture," Veterinary Parasitology, 30 September 2005, pp. 249-72;
161. Henning Roed, WWF-Norway, discussion with author, 26 March 2008.
162. A recent overview of current commercial use of closed-container systems is Ecoplan International Inc., Global Assessment of Closed System Aquaculture, prepared for David Suzuki and Georgia Strait Alliance (Vancouver, British Columbia: May 2008).
163. Sidebar 4 adapted from Ben Block, "New Fish Farms Move from Ocean to Warehouse," Eye on Earth (Worldwatch Institute), 25 April 2008;
164. percent from Boris Worm et al., "Impacts of Biodiversity Loss on Ocean Ecosystem Services," Science, 3 November 2006, pp. 787-90;
165. net pens from United Nations Environment Programme, GEO Yearbook 2006 (Nairobi: 2006), p. 67;
166. percent from United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2006 (Rome: 2007);
167. Israel from "Eliat's Fish Farms: In? Out?" Israel Environment Bulletin, January 2005;
168. methane from U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Methane," www.epa.gov/methane.
169. Rosamond Naylor and Marshall Burke, "Aquaculture and Ocean Resources: Raising Tigers of the Sea," Annu. Rev. Environ. Resour., Vol. 30 (2005), pp. 185-218.
170. James M. Carlberg, President, Kent SeaTech Corp, San Diego, CA, discussion with author, 5 May 2008.
171. Barry Costa-Pierce, Director, Rhode Island Sea Grant College Program, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, RI, discussion with author, 3 and 10 April 2008 and 14 June 2008.
172. Carlos M. Duarte, Nùria Marbá, and Marianne Holmer, "Rapid Domestication of Marine Species," Science, 20 April 2007, pp. 382-83.
173. Ibid.
174. Rebecca Goldburg, Environmental Defense Fund, New York, NY, discussion with author, 14 March 2008.
175. J. Michael Beman, Kevin R. Arrigo, and Pamela A. Matson, "Agricultural Runoff Fuels Large Phytoplankton Blooms in Vulnerable Areas of the Ocean," Nature, 10 March 2005, pp. 211-14.
176. Rowan Jacobsen, A Geography of Oysters (New York: Bloomsbury USA, 2007).
177. Rowan Jacobsen, "Restoration on the Half Shell," New York Times, 9 April 2007.
178. World Bank, Changing the Face of the Waters: The Promise and Challenge of Sustainable Aquaculture (Washington, DC: 2007).
179. Barry A. Costa-Pierce and Christopher J. Bridger, "The Role of Marine Aquaculture Facilities as Habitats and Ecosystems," in R.R. Stickney, ed., Responsible Marine Aquaculture (Oxfordshire, UK: CABI International, 2002).
180. World Bank, op. cit. note 15.
181. Dang K. Nhan et al., "Economic and Nutrient Discharge Tradeoffs of Excreta-fed Aquaculture in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam," Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, Vol. 124 (2008), pp. 259-69.
182. Costa-Pierce, op. cit. note 8;
183. Kenneth R. Weiss, "A Primeval Tide of Toxins," Los Angeles Times, 30 July 2006.
184. Jacobsen, op. cit. note 14.
185. Chuck Hesse, Caicos Conch Farm, Turks and Caicos, discussion with author, 28 January 2008.
186. See also www.caicosconchfarm.com.
187. Costa-Pierce and Bridger, op. cit. note 16.
188. Ibid.
189. Ibid.
190. Costa-Pierce, op. cit. note 8.
191. Rosamond Naylor and Marshall Burke, "Aquaculture and Ocean Resources: Raising Tigers of the Sea," Annu. Rev. Environ. Resour., Vol. 30 (2005), pp. 185-218.
192. Sidebar 5 from the following sources: antibiotic use from Charles Benbrook, "Antibiotic Drug Use in U.S. Aquaculture," February 2002, at www.mindfully.org/Water/Antibiotic -Aquaculture-BenbrookFeb02.htm, and from Chuck Benbrook, Northwest Science and Environmental Policy Center, Sandpoint, ID, e-mail to author, 16 June 2008;
193. Nick Jans, "Farmed Salmon Can't Beat Wild," USA Today, 6 October 2002;
194. contaminants in farmed salmon from Environmental Working Group, PCBs in Farmed Salmon: Factory Methods, Unnatural Results (Washington, DC: 30 July 2003);
195. dioxin extraction facilities from Triple Nine Fish Protein company, Triple Nine News, No. 2 (2005), available at www.999.dk;
196. health study from S. L. Seierstad et al., "Dietary Intake of Differently Fed Salmon: The Influence on Markers of Human Atherosclerosis," European Journal of Clinical Investigation, 5 January 2005, pp. 52-59;
197. contaminant levels by region from R.A. Hites et al., "Global Assessment of Organic Contaminants in Farmed Salmon," Science, Vol. 303 (2004), pp. 226-29;
198. fat in Atlantic salmon from Department of Foods and Nutrition, Purdue University, "Fatty acid content of farmed and wild fish," at http://fn.cfs.purdue.edu/ang lingindiana/AquaculturevsWildFish/ FattyAcidsFarm.pdf;
199. red meat vs. fish intake from U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service, "Red meat, poultry, and fish (boneless, trimmed equivalent)," electronic database, www.ers.usda.gov/Data/ FoodConsumption/FoodAvailSpreadsheets.htm, updated 15 March 2008;
200. salmon consumption from H.M. Johnson and Associates, Annual Report on the United States Seafood Industry (Jacksonville, OR: 2004);
201. PCB intake from Ron Hardy, "Contaminants in Salmon: A Follow-Up," Aquaculture Magazine, March/April 2005, pp. 1-3;
202. percent of omega-3 content from G. Bell et al., "Dioxin and Dioxin-like Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) in Scottish Farmed Salmon (Salmo salar): Effects of Replacement of Dietary Marine Fish Oil with Vegetable Oils," Aquaculture, Vol. 243 (2005), pp. 305-14.
203. United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), FISHSTAT electronic database, www.fao.org/fishery/topic/16073, updated March 2008.
204. Galicia Tourism Guide online, "Fiesta del Marisco," www.galinor.es/ogrove/.
205. Bill Taylor, Taylor Shellfish Farms, Shelton, WA, discussion with author, 23 March 2008.
206. Government of New Brunswick, Canada, Department of Agriculture and Aquaculture, Aquaculture 2005, at www.gnb.ca/0168/30/ ReviewAquaculture2005.pdf;
207. Len Stewart, Aquaculture Strategies Inc., "Salmon Aquaculture in New Brunswick: Natural Development of Our Marine Heritage," report prepared for The New Brunswick Salmon Growers' Association (New Brunswick, Canada: December 2001).
208. Egypt from Marie Christine Monfort, Markets and Marketing of Aquaculture Finfish in Europe: Focus on the Mediterranean Basin, report prepared for FAO Fisheries division (Rome: April 2006), p. 32.
209. Ibid.
210. Ibid. Sidebar 6 from the following sources: World Bank, Changing the Face of the Waters: The Promise and Challenge of Sustainable Aquaculture (Washington, DC: 2007);
211. Christopher Delgado et al., Outlook for Fish to 2020: Meeting Global Demand (Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute, 2003);
212. World Fish Center, "Waste Not Want Not: Spreading Affordable Integrated Agriculture-Aquaculture in Malawi, Sub-Saharan Africa," www.worldfishcenter.org/cms/list_article.aspx?catID=32&ddIID=77, viewed 4 September 2006;
213. FAO, op. cit. note 2; Randall Brummet, WorldFish Center, Penang, Malaysia, discussion with author, 17 September 2007.
214. Monfort, op. cit. note 6.
215. Brian Halweil, "Salty Saviors," Orion, July/August 2005.
216. Ibid.
217. Sena De Silva, Network of Aquaculture Centres in Asia-Pacific (NACA), Bangkok, Thailand, discussion with author, 4 February 2008.
218. Barry Costa-Pierce, Director, Rhode Island Sea Grant College Program, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, RI, discussion with author, 3 and 10 April 2008 and 14 June 2008.
219. Monfort, op. cit. note 6.
220. Costa-Pierce, op. cit. note 13.
221. United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), "Promoting the Ecosystem Approach to Fisheries. Guidelines on the Ecosystem Approach in Fisheries to Promote Sustainable and Responsible Fisheries," www.fao.org/bestpractices/content/06/06_03_en.htm;
222. Barry Costa-Pierce, "An Ecosystem Approach to Marine Aquaculture: A Global Review," in D. Soto et al., eds., Building an Ecosystem Approach to Aquaculture (EAA): Initial Steps for Guidelines: FAO Working Group on an Ecosystem Approach to Aquaculture Expert Workshop, 7-11 May, 2007. Mallorca, Spain (Rome: FAO, 2008).
223. Barry Costa-Pierce, Director, Rhode Island Sea Grant Colege Program, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, RI, discussion with author, 3 and 10 April 2008 and 14 June 2008.
224. Daniel Lee, Global Aquaculture Alliance, St. Louis, MO, discussion with author, 28 March 2008.
225. Ibid.
226. Lee, op. cit. note 3.
227. Ibid.
228. Mai Trong Thong et al., "An Assessment of the Linkages Between Trade Liberalization, Rural Poverty, and Environment in Shrimp Aquaculture in Ca Mau Province, Vietnam" (Hanoi: WWF Greater Mekong Vietnam Programme, October 2006);
229. Institute of Fisheries Management, Research Institute for Aquaculture Number 1, Network of Aquaculture Centres in Asia-Pacific, Can Tho University, and World Wide Fund for Nature, "Guidelines for Environmental Management of Aquaculture Investments in Vietnam," Technical Note 37564, prepared for the Ministry of Fisheries Viet Nam and for the World Bank (Washington, DC: June 2006).
230. Lee, op. cit. note 3.
231. Ibid.
232. "Buyers Navigate Sustainable Seafood," SeaFood Business, October 2004, pp. 22-23;
233. Kate Moser, "Sustainable Seafood Casts a Wider Net," Christian Science Monitor, 3 April 2006.
234. Kris Hudson and Wilawan Watcharasakwet, "The New Wal-Mart Effect: Cleaner Thai Shrimp Farms," Wall Street Journal, 24 July 2007.
235. WWF, "Aquaculture Dialogues," www.worldwildlife.org/what/ globalmarkets/aquaculture/item5218.html.
236. Ibid.
237. Eric Bernard, shrimp aquaculture dialogue leader, WWF, Paris, discussion with author, 3 May 2008.
238. Ibid.
239. Chris Mann, Senior Officer and Director, Campaign for Healthy Oceans, Pew Environment Group, Washington, DC, discussion with author, 19 December 2007.
240. Rupert Howes, Chief Executive, Marine Stewardship Council, London, UK, discussion with author, 17 February 2008.
241. Ibid.
242. Martin Hickman, "The Salmon Business: Can Marine Farming Ever Be Eco Friendly?" The Independent, 24 July 2008.
243. Ylan Q. Mui, "Grocers' Rules Follow Wave of Sustainably Farmed Fish," Washington Post, 16 July 2008. Standards available at Whole Foods Market, "Our Farm-Raised Seafood," www.wholefoodsmarket.com/products/seafood/aquaculture.html.
244. Rebecca Goldburg, Environmental Defense Fund, New York, NY, discussion with author, 14 March 2008.
245. Teresa Ish, Environmental Defense Fund, New York, NY, discussion with author, 14 March 2008.
246. Helene York, Director, Bon Appétit Management Company Foundation, San Francisco, CA, discussion with author, 20 March 2008.
247. Astrid Scholz, Vice President of Knowledge Systems, Ecotrust, Portland, OR, discussion with author, 17 April 2008. See also www.ecotrust.org/Ica.
248. Ibid.
249. Ibid.
250. Ibid.