Nitrate attenuation in groundwater: A review of biogeochemical controlling processes

Water Research

Volumn 42, Issue 16, 2008, Pages 4215-4232

  Rivett, Michael O ^a   Buss, Stephen R ^b   Morgan, Philip ^b   Smith, Jonathan W N ^c,d   Bemment, Chrystina D ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF BIRMINGHAM   (United Kingdom)

^b ESI Ltd   (United Kingdom)

^c ENVIRONMENT AGENCY   (United Kingdom)

^d UNIVERSITY OF SHEFFIELD   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Denitrification; Groundwater; Natural attenuation; Nitrate; Nitrates Directive; Water Framework Directive

Indexed keywords

AQUIFERS; BACTERIA; BIOGEOCHEMISTRY; DENITRIFICATION; ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS; GROUNDWATER POLLUTION; GROUNDWATER RESOURCES; HYDROGEOLOGY; ORGANIC CARBON; POROSITY; PROCESS CONTROL;

BIOGEOCHEMICAL PROCESS; BIOGEOCHEMICALS; CONTROLLING PROCESS; DENITRIFICATION RATE; ELECTRON DONORS; ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS; NITRATE DIRECTIVE; NITRATE POLLUTION; PROCESS CONTROLLING; WATER FRAMEWORK DIRECTIVES;

NITRATES;

AMMONIA; GROUND WATER; IRON; NITRATE; ORGANIC CARBON; OXYGEN; PESTICIDE; SULFUR; SURFACE WATER; TOXIN; TRACE ELEMENT;

AQUIFER POLLUTION; BACTERIUM; BIOGEOCHEMISTRY; CONCENTRATION (COMPOSITION); DENITRIFICATION; GROUNDWATER POLLUTION; NATURAL ATTENUATION; NITRATE; NUTRIENT; PH; POROSITY; RISK ASSESSMENT; SALINITY; STANDARD (REGULATION); SURFACE WATER; WATER MANAGEMENT;

ACCLIMATIZATION; AQUIFER; AUTOTROPHY; BIODEGRADATION; BIOGEOCHEMISTRY; CARBON SOURCE; CONCENTRATION (PARAMETERS); DENITRIFICATION; DENITRIFYING BACTERIUM; ELECTRON; ENVIRONMENTAL FACTOR; ENVIRONMENTAL TEMPERATURE; HETEROTROPHY; MICROBIAL ACTIVITY; MICROBIAL BIOMASS; NITROGEN FIXATION; NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY; OXYGEN CONCENTRATION; PH; PHREATOPHYTE; PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY; POROSITY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS; REVIEW; SALINITY; SEASHORE; SEDIMENT; SOIL PROPERTY; WATER POLLUTION CONTROL; WATER SUPPLY;

EID: 53149117415     PISSN: 00431354     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2008.07.020     Document Type: Review

References (199)

1. Allen-King R.M., Grathwol P., and Ball W.P. New modeling paradigms for the sorption of hydrophobic organic chemicals to heterogeneous carbonaceous matter in soils, sediments, and rocks. Adv. Water Resour. 25 8-12 (2002) 985-1016
2. Amirbahman A., Schönenberger R., Johnson C.A., and Sigg L. Aqueous- and solid-phase biogeochemistry of a calcareous aquifer system downgradient from a municipal solid waste landfill (Winterthur, Switzerland). Environ. Sci. Technol. 32 13 (1998) 1933-1940
3. Aravena R., and Robertson W.D. Use of multiple isotope tracers to evaluate denitrification in ground water: study of nitrate from a large-flux septic system plume. Ground Water 36 6 (1998) 975-982
4. Australian State of the Environment Committee (ASEC), 2001. Australia State of the Environment 2001, Independent Report to the Commonwealth Minister for the Environment and Heritage, CSIRO. Publishing on behalf of the Department of the Environment and Heritage, Canberra, 130 pp.
5. Bååth E. Effects of heavy metals in soil on microbial processes and populations (a review). Water Air Soil Pollut. 47 3-4 (1989) 335-379
6. Baker M.A., and Vervier P. Hydrological variability, organic matter supply and denitrification in the Garonne River ecosystem. Freshwater Biol. 49 2 (2004) 181-190
7. Bates H.K., and Spalding R.F. Aquifer denitrification as interpreted from in situ microcosm experiments. J. Environ. Qual. 27 1 (1998) 174-182
8. Beauchamp E.G., Trevors J.T., and Paul J.W. Carbon sources for bacterial denitrification. Adv. Soil Sci. 10 (1989) 113-142
9. Beeson S., and Cook M.C. Nitrate in groundwater: a water company perspective. Q. J. Eng. Geol. Hydrogeol. 37 4 (2004) 261-270
10. Bernot M.J., Dodds W.K., Gardner W.S., McCarthy M.J., Sobolev D., and Tank J.L. Comparing denitrification estimates for a Texas estuary by using acetylene inhibition and membrane inlet mass spectrometry. Appl. Environ. Microb. 69 10 (2003) 5950-5956
11. Betlach M.R., and Tiedje J.M. Kinetic explanation for accumulation of nitrite, nitric oxide, and nitrous oxide during bacterial denitrification. Appl. Environ. Microb. 42 6 (1981) 1074-1084
12. Bishop P.L., and Yu T. A microelectrode study of redox potential change in biofilms. Water Sci. Technol. 39 7 (1999) 179-185
13. Blakey N.C., and Towler P.A. The effect of unsaturated/saturated zone property upon the hydrogeochemical and microbiological processes involved in the migration and attenuation of landfill leachate. Water Sci. Technol. 20 3 (1988) 119-128
14. 2 by soil micro-organisms. Soil Biol. Biochem. 10 3 (1978) 187-191
15. Bölke J.K., and Denver J.M. Combined use of groundwater dating, chemical, and isotopic analyses to resolve the history and fate of nitrate contamination in two agricultural watersheds, Atlantic coastal plain, Maryland. Water Resour. Res. 31 9 (1995) 2319-2339
16. Bölke J.K., Wanty R., Tuttle M., Delin G., and Landon M. Denitrification in the recharge area and discharge area of a transient agricultural nitrate plume in a glacial outwash sand aquifer, Minnesota. Water Resour. Res. 38 7 (2002) 10.1-10.26
17. Bollag J.M., and Barabasz W. Effect of heavy metals on the denitrification process in soil. J. Environ. Qual. 8 2 (1979) 196-201
18. Bollag J.M., and Henneringer H.M. Influence of pesticides on denitrification in soil and with an isolated bacterium. J. Environ. Qual. 5 1 (1976) 15-18
19. Bollag J.M., and Kurek E.J. Nitrite and nitrous oxide accumulation during denitrification in the presence of pesticide derivatives. Appl. Environ. Microb. 39 4 (1980) 845-849
20. Bowell R.J. The hydrogeochemical dynamics of mine pit lakes. In: Younger P.L., and Robins N.S. (Eds). Mine Water Hydrogeology and Geochemistry. Geological Society Special Publication vol. 198 (2002) 159-185
21. Brady N.C., and Weil R.R. The Nature and Properties of Soils. 13th ed. (2002), Prentice Hall, New Jersey
22. Brettar I., Sanchez-Perez J.-M., and Trémolières M. Nitrate elimination by denitrification in hardwood forest soils of the Upper Rhine floodplain - correlation with redox potential and organic matter. Hydrobiologia 269 1 (2002) 11-21
23. Broers H.P. Nitrate reduction and pyrite oxidation in the Netherlands. In: Razowska-Jaworek L., and Sadurski A. (Eds). Nitrates in Groundwater (2004), International Association of Hydrogeologists Selected Papers 5, Balkema, Leiden
24. Broholm M.M., and Arvin E. Biodegradation of phenols in a sandstone aquifer under aerobic conditions and mixed nitrate and iron reducing conditions. J. Contam. Hydrol. 44 3 (2000) 239-273
25. Bulger P.R., Kehew A.E., and Nelson R.A. Dissimilatory nitrate reduction in a waste-water contaminated aquifer. Ground Water 27 5 (1989) 664-671
26. Burden R.J. Nitrate contamination in New Zealand aquifers: a review. N.Z. J. Sci. 25 3 (1982) 205-220
27. Burford J.R., and Bremner J.M. Relationships between denitrification capacities of soils and total, water-soluble and readily decomposable soil organic matter. Soil Biol. Biochem. 7 6 (1975) 389-394
28. Burt T.P., Matchett L.S., Goulding K.W.T., Webster C.P., and Haycock N.E. Denitrification in riparian buffer zones: the role of floodplain hydrology. Hydrol. Process. 13 10 (1999) 1451-1463
29. Buss S.R., Herbert A.W., Morgan P., Thornton S.F., and Smith J.W.N. A review of ammonium attenuation in soil and groundwater. Q. J. Eng. Geol. Hydrogeol. 37 4 (2004) 347-359
30. Buss S.R., Thrasher J., Morgan P., and Smith J.W.N. A review of mecoprop attenuation in the subsurface. Q. J. Eng. Geol. Hydrogeol. 39 3 (2006) 283-292
31. Cannavo P., Richaume A., and Lafolie F. Fate of nitrogen and carbon in the vadose zone: in situ and laboratory measurements of seasonal variations in aerobic respiratory and denitrifying activities. Soil Biol. Biochem. 36 3 (2004) 463-478
32. Carter J.P., Hsiao Y.H., Spiro S., and Richardson D.J. Soil and sediment bacteria capable of aerobic nitrate respiration. Appl. Environ. Microb. 61 8 (1995) 2852-2858
33. Casey R.E., and Klaine S.J. Attenuation by a riparian wetland during natural and artificial runoff events. J. Environ. Qual. 30 5 (2001) 1720-1731
34. Casey R.E., Taylor M.D., and Klaine S.J. Mechanisms of nutrient attenuation in a sub-surface flow riparian wetland. J. Environ. Qual. 30 5 (2001) 1732-1737
35. Cervelli S., and Rolston D.E. Influence of atrazine on denitrification in soil column. J. Environ. Qual. 12 4 (1983) 482-486
36. Champ D.R., Gulens J., and Jackson R.E. Oxidation-reduction sequences in groundwater flow systems. Can. J. Earth Sci. 16 1 (1979) 12-23
37. Charette M.A., and Sholkovitz E.R. Oxidative precipitation of groundwater-derived ferrous iron in the subterranean estuary of a coastal bay. Geophys. Res. Lett. 29 10 (2002) 1444
38. Christianson C.B., and Cho C.M. Chemical denitrification in frozen soils. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 47 1 (1983) 38-42
39. Christensen T.H., Bjerg P.L., Banwart S.A., Jakobsen R., Heron G., and Albrechtsen H.-J. Characterization of redox conditions in groundwater contaminant plumes. J. Contam. Hydrol. 45 3-4 (2000) 165-241
40. Clay D.E., Zheng Z., Liu Z., Clay S.A., and Trooien T.P. Bromide and nitrate movement through undisturbed soil columns. J. Environ. Qual. 33 1 (2004) 338-342
41. Clément J.C., Pinay G., and Marmonier P. Seasonal dynamics of denitrification along catenas in three riparian wetlands with different vegetation cover. J. Environ. Qual. 31 3 (2002) 1025-1037
42. Corbett D.R., Dillon K., Burnett W., and Schaefer G. The spatial variability of nitrogen and phosphorus concentration in a sand aquifer influenced by onsite sewage treatment and disposal systems: a case study on St. George Island, Florida. Environ. Pollut. 117 2 (2002) 337-345
43. Corre M.D., Schnabel R.R., and Shaffer J.A. Evaluation of soil organic carbon under forests, cool-season and warm-season grasses in the north-eastern US. Soil Biol. Biochem. 31 11 (1999) 1531-1539
44. Dahl M., Nilsson B., Langhoff J.H., and Refsgaard J.C. Review of classification schemes and new multi-scale typology of groundwater-surface water interaction. J. Hydrol. 344 1-2 (2007) 1-16
45. Dalton H., and Brand-Hardy R. Nitrogen, the essential public enemy. J. Appl. Ecol. 40 5 (2003) 771-781
46. Davidson E.A., Chorover J., and Dail D.B. A mechanism of abiotic immobilization of nitrate in forest ecosystems: the ferric wheel hypothesis. Glob. Change Biol. 9 2 (2003) 228-236
47. Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra). The Government's Strategic Review of Diffuse Water Pollution from Agriculture in England and Wales (2002), Defra, London
48. Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra), 2006. Post-conciliation Partial Regulatory Impact Assessment. Groundwater Proposals under Article 17 of the Water Framework Directive. Draft final report. Defra, London.
49. Delaune R.D., and Jugsujinda A. Denitrification potential in a Louisiana wetland receiving diverted Mississippi River water. Chem. Ecol. 19 6 (2003) 411-418
50. DeSimone L.A., and Howes B.L. Nitrogen transport and transformations in a shallow aquifer receiving wastewater discharge: a mass balance approach. Water Resour. Res. 34 2 (1998) 271-285
51. Devito K.J., Fitzgerald D., Hill A.R., and Aravena R. Nitrate dynamics in relation to lithology and hydrologic flow path in a river riparian zone. J. Environ. Qual. 29 4 (2000) 1075-1084
52. Dinçer A.R., and Kargi F. Salt inhibition of nitrification and denitrification in saline wastewater. Environ. Technol. 20 11 (1999) 1147-1153
53. Domagalski J.L., Phillips S.P., Bayless E.R., Zamora C., Kendall C., Wildman Jr. R.A., and Hering J.G. Influences of the unsaturated, saturated, and riparian zones on the transport of nitrate near the Merced River, California, USA. Hydrogeol. J. 16 4 (2008) 675-690
54. Dybas M.J., Barcelona M., Bezborodnikov S., Davies S., Forney L., Heuer H., Kawka O., Mayotte T., Sepulveda-Torres L., Smalla K., Sneathen M., Tiedje J., Voice T., Wiggert D.C., Witt M.E., and Criddle C.S. Pilot-scale evaluation of bioaugmentation for in-situ remediation of a carbon tetrachloride-contaminated aquifer. Environ. Sci. Technol. 32 22 (1998) 3598-3611
55. Eckert P., and Appelo C.A.J. Hydrogeochemical modelling of enhanced benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, xylene (BTEX) remediation with nitrate. Water Resour. Res. 38 8 (2002) 5.1-5.11
56. Edmunds W.M., Bath A.H., and Miles D.L. Hydrochemical evolution of the East Midlands Triassic sandstone aquifer, England. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 46 11 (1982) 2069-2081
57. European Environment Agency (EEA), 2000. Groundwater Quality and Quantity in Europe. Environmental Assessment Report No. 3. European Environment Agency, Copenhagen.
58. European Environment Agency (EEA). Present concentration of nitrate in groundwater bodies in European countries, 2003 (2007). http://dataservice.eea.europa.eu/atlas/viewdata/viewpub.asp?id=2027
59. Fan A.M., and Steinberg V.E. Health implications of nitrate and nitrite in drinking water: an update on methemoglobinemia occurrence and reproductive and developmental toxicity. Regul. Toxicol. Pharm. 23 1 (1996) 35-43
60. Fischer H., Kloep F., Wilzcek S., and Pusch M.T. A river's liver - microbial processes within the hyporheic zone of a large lowland river. Biogeochemistry 76 2 (2005) 349-371
61. Fontes J.-C., Andrews J.N., Edmunds W.M., Guerre A., and Travi Y. Palaeorecharge by the Niger River (Mali) deduced from groundwater chemistry. Water Resour. Res. 27 2 (1991) 199-214
62. Foster S.S.D. Assessing and controlling the impacts of agriculture on groundwater - from barley barons to beef bans. Q. J. Eng. Geol. Hydrogeol. 33 4 (2000) 263-280
63. Foster S.S.D., Kelly D.P., and James R. The evidence for zones of biodenitrification in British aquifers. In: Brierely C.L. (Ed). Planetary Ecology (1985), Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York 356-369
64. Francis A.J., Slater J.M., and Dodge C.J. Denitrification in deep sub-surface sediments. Geomicrobiol. J. 7 1-2 (1989) 103-116
65. Gale, I.N., Marks, R.J., Darling, W.G., West, J.M., 1994. Bacterial denitrification in aquifers: evidence from the unsaturated zone and the unconfined chalk and Sherwood sandstone aquifers. National Rivers Authority R&D Note 215.
66. Gallardo A., and Tase N. Role of small valleys and wetlands in attenuation of a rural-area groundwater contamination. In: Heathwaite, et al. (Ed). Dynamics and Biogeochemistry of River Corridors and Wetlands. IAHS Publication 294 (2005) 86-92
67. Gillham R.W. Nitrate contamination of ground water in southern Ontario and the evidence for denitrification. In: Bogárdi I., and Kuzelka R.D. (Eds). Nitrate Contamination. NATO ASI Series G30 (1991), Springer-Verlag, Berlin 181-198
68. Gooddy D.C., Clay J.W., and Bottrell S.H. Redox-driven changes in pore water chemistry in the unsaturated zone of the chalk aquifer beneath unlined cattle slurry lagoons. Appl. Geochem. 17 7 (2002) 903-921
69. Grischek T., Hiscock K.M., Metschies T., Dennis P.F., and Nestler W. Factors affecting denitrification during infiltration of river water into a sand and gravel aquifer in Saxony, Germany. Water Res. 32 22 (1998) 450-460
70. Groffman P.M., Altabet M.A., Böhlke J.K., Butterbach-Bahl K., David M.B., Firestone M.K., Giblin A.E., Kana T.M., Nielsen L.P., and Voytek M.A. Methods for measuring denitrification: diverse approaches to a difficult problem. Ecol. Appl. 16 6 (2006) 2091-2122
71. Gumaelius L., Smith E.H., and Dalhammar G. Potential biomarker for denitrification of wastewaters: effects of process variables and cadmium toxicity. Water Res. 30 12 (1996) 3025-3031
72. Hammersley M.R., and Howes B.L. Control of denitrification in a septage-treating artificial wetland: the dual role of particulate organic carbon. Water Res. 36 17 (2002) 4415-4427
73. Hartog N., van Bergen P.F., de Leeuw J.W., and Griffioen J. Reactivity of organic matter in aquifer sediments: geological and geochemical controls. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 68 6 (2004) 1281-1292
74. Haycock N.E., and Pinay G. Nitrate retention in grass and poplar vegetated buffer strips during the winter. J. Environ. Qual. 22 2 (1993) 273-278
75. Haycock N.E., Pinay G., and Walker C. Nitrogen retention in river corridors: European perspective. Ambio XXII 6 (1993) 340-346
76. Haycock, N.E., Burt, T., Goulding, K., Pinay, G., 1997. Buffer Zones: Their Processes and Potential in Water Protection. Quest Environmental Publ. ISBN 0 953 0051 00, 326 pp.
77. Hill A.R. Nitrate removal in stream riparian zones. J. Environ. Qual. 25 44 (1996) 743-755
78. Hinkle S.R., Böhlke J.K., Duff J.H., Morgan D.S., and Weick R.J. Aquifer-scale controls on the distribution of nitrate and ammonium in ground water near La Pine, Oregon, USA. J. Hydrol. 333 2-4 (2007) 486-503
79. Hirsh S.R., Compton H.R., Matey D.H., Wrobel J.G., and Schneider W.H. Five-year pilot study: Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland. In: McCutcheon S.C., and Schnoor J.L. (Eds). Phytoremediation: Transformation and Control of Contaminants (2003), John Wiley and Sons Inc., Hoboken, NJ 635-659
80. Hiscock K.M., Lloyd J.W., and Lerner D.N. Review of natural and artificial denitrification of groundwater. Water Res. 25 9 (1991) 1099-1111
81. Hiscock K.M., Bateman A.S., Muhlherr I.H., Fukada T., and Dennis P.F. Indirect emissions of nitrous oxide from regional aquifers in the United Kingdom. Environ. Sci. Technol. 37 16 (2003) 3507-3512
82. Hiscock K.M., Lovett A., Saich A., Dockerty T., Johnson P., Sandhu C., Sünnenberg G., Appleton K., Harris B., and Greaves J. Modelling land-use scenarios to reduce groundwater nitrate pollution: the European Water4All project. Q. J. Eng. Geol. Hydrogeol. 40 4 (2007) 417-434
83. Hochstein L.I., Betlach M.R., and Kitikos G. The effect of oxygen on denitrification during steady-state growth of Paracoccus halodenitrificans. Arch. Microbiol. 137 1 (1984) 74-78
84. Holm P.E., Nielsen P.H., Albrechtsen H.J., and Christensen T.H. Importance of unattached bacteria and bacteria attached to sediment in determining potentials for degradation of xenobiotic organic contaminants in an aerobic aquifer. Appl. Environ. Microb. 58 9 (1992) 3020-3026
85. Höring H., and Chapman D. Nitrates and Nitrites in Drinking Water. World Health Organization Drinking Water Series (2004), IWA Publishing, London
86. Hu Q., Westerhoff P., and Vermaas W. Removal of nitrate from groundwater by cyanobacteria: quantitative assessment of factors influencing nitrate uptake. Appl. Environ. Microb. 66 1 (2000) 133-139
87. Hudak P.F. Regional trends in nitrate content of Texas groundwater. J. Hydrol. 228 1 (2000) 37-47
88. Hunter W.J. Accumulation of nitrite in denitrifying barriers when phosphate is limiting. J. Contam. Hydrol. 66 1-2 (2003) 79-91
89. Isenbeck-Schröter M., Döring U., Möller A., Schröter J., and Matthe G. Experimental approach and simulation of the retention processes limiting orthophosphate transport in groundwater. J. Contam. Hydrol. 14 2 (1993) 143-161
90. Jacinthe P.-A., Groffman P.M., Gold A.J., and Mosier A. Patchiness in microbial nitrogen transformations in groundwater in a riparian forest. J. Environ. Qual. 27 1 (1998) 156-164
91. Jacinthe P.-A., Groffman P.M., and Gold A.J. Landscape and watershed processes - dissolved organic carbon dynamics in a riparian aquifer: effects of hydrology and nitrate enrichment. J. Environ. Qual. 32 4 (2003) 1365-1374
92. James C., Fisher J., Russell V., Collings S., and Moss B.R. Nitrate availability and hydrophyte species richness in shallow lakes. Freshwater Biol. 50 6 (2005) 1049-1063
93. Johnson A.C., Hughes C.D., Willaims R.J., and Chilton P.J. Potential for aerobic isoproturon biodegradation and sorption in the unsaturated and saturated zones of a chalk aquifer. J. Contam. Hydrol. 30 3-4 (1998) 281-297
94. Johnson S.J., Woolhouse K.J., Prommer H., Barry D.A., and Christofi N. Contribution of anaerobic microbial activity to natural attenuation of benzene in groundwater. Eng. Geol. 70 3-4 (2003) 343-349
95. Johnson D., Fletcher S.W., and Bray K. Integrated assessment of nitrate concentrations for the designation of groundwater Nitrate Vulnerable Zones in England and Wales. Q. J. Eng. Geol. Hydrogeol. 40 4 (2007) 407-415
96. Jordahl J.L., Foster L., Schnoor J.L., and Alvarez J.J. Effect of hybrid poplar trees on microbial populations important to hazardous waste bioremediation. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 16 6 (1997) 1318-1321
97. Jørgensen P.R., Urup J., Helstrup T., Jensen M.B., Eiland F., and Vinther F.P. Transport and reduction of nitrate in clayey till underneath forest and arable land. J. Contam. Hydrol. 73 1-4 (2004) 207-226
98. Kaiser K., Guggenberger G., Haumaier L., and Zech W. The composition of dissolved organic matter in forest soil solutions: changes induced by seasons and passage through the mineral soil. Org. Geochem. 33 3 (2002) 307-318
99. Kana T.M., Sullivan M.B., Cornwell J.C., and Groszkowski K. Denitrification in estuarine sediments determined by membrane inlet mass spectrometry. Limnol. Oceanogr. 43 2 (1998) 334-339
100. Kao C.-M., and Borden R.C. Site specific variability in BTEX biodegradation under denitrifying conditions. Ground Water 35 2 (1997) 305-311
101. Katou H., Clothier B.E., and Green S.R. Anion transport involving competitive adsorption during transient water flow in an Andisol. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 60 5 (1996) 1368-1375
102. Kelly W.R. Heterogeneities in ground-water geochemistry in a sand aquifer beneath an irrigated field. J. Hydrol. 198 1 (1997) 154-176
103. Kelso B.H.L., Smith R.V., Laughlin R.J., and Lennox S.D. Dissimilatory nitrate reduction in anaerobic sediments leading to river nitrite accumulation. Appl. Environ. Microb. 63 12 (1997) 4679-4685
104. Kelso B.H.L., Smith R.V., and Laughlin R.J. Effects of carbon substrates on nitrite accumulation in freshwater sediments. Appl. Environ. Microb. 65 1 (1999) 61-66
105. Kinniburgh, D.G., Gale, I.N., Gooddy, D.C., et al., 1999. Denitrification in the unsaturated zones of the British Chalk and Sherwood Sandstone aquifers. British Geological Survey Technical Report WD/99/2.
106. Knapp M.F. Diffuse pollution threats to groundwater: a UK water company perspective. Q. J. Eng. Geol. Hydrogeol. 38 1 (2005) 39-51
107. Knowles R. Denitrification. Microbiol. Rev. 46 1 (1982) 43-70
108. Kölle W., Werner P., Strebel O., and Böttcher J. Denitrifikation in einem reduzierenden Grundwasserleiter (Denitrification by pyrite in a reducing aquifer). Vom Wasser 61 1 (1983) 125-147
109. Kölle W., Strebel O., and Böttcher J. Formation of sulphate by microbial denitrification in a reducing aquifer. Water Supply 3 1 (1985) 35-40
110. Korner H., and Zumft W.G. Expression of denitrification enzymes in response to the dissolved oxygen level and respiratory substrate in continuous culture of Pseudomonas stutzeri. Appl. Environ. Microb. 55 7 (1989) 1670-1676
111. Korom S.F. Natural denitrification in the saturated zone: a review. Water Resour. Res. 28 6 (1992) 1657-1668
112. Korom S.F., Schlag A.J., Schuh W.M., and Schlag A.K. In-situ mesocosms: denitrification in the Elk Valley aquifer. Ground Water Monit. Rev. 25 1 (2005) 79-89
113. Kowalenko C.G. The influence of sulphur anions on denitrification. Can. J. Soil Sci. 59 (1979) 221-223
114. Krom M.D., and Berner R.A. Adsorption of phosphate in anoxic marine sediments. Limnol. Oceanogr. 25 5 (1980) 797-806
115. LaMontagne M.G., Duran R., and Valiela I. Nitrous oxide sources and sinks in coastal aquifers and coupled estuarine waters. Sci. Total Environ. 309 1-3 (2002) 139-149
116. Licht, L.A., Schnoor, J.L., 1993. Tree buffers protect shallow ground water at contaminated sites. Ground Water Currents, United States Environmental Protection Agency, EPA/542/N-93/011.
117. Lind A.-M. Nitrate Reduction in the Subsoil. In: Golterman H.L. (Ed). Denitrification in the Nitrogen Cycle (1983), Plenum, New York 145-156
118. MacQuarrie K.T.B., Sudicky E.A., and Robertson W.D. Multicomponent simulation of wastewater-derived nitrogen and carbon in shallow unconfined aquifers: II. Model application to a field site. J. Contam. Hydrol. 47 1 (2001) 85-104
119. Magalhàes C., Moreira R., Wiebe W.J., and Bordalo A.A. Salinity and inorganic nitrogen effects on nitrification and denitrification rates in intertidal sediments and rocky biofilms: Douro River Estuary, Portugal. In: Bruen M. (Ed). Proceedings of the 7th International Specialised IWA Conference on Diffuse Pollution and Basin Management, Dublin (2003) 6.73-6.79
120. Mariotti A. Denitrification in groundwaters, principles and methods for its identification: a review. J. Hydrol. 88 1-2 (1986) 1-23
121. Martinez-Toledo M.V., Salmeron V., Rodelas B., Pozo C., and Gonzalez-Lopez J. Studies on the effects of the herbicide simazine on microflora of four agricultural soils. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 15 7 (1996) 1115-1118
122. Mason C.F. Biology of Freshwater Pollution. fourth ed. (2002), Prentice Hall, Harlow
123. Mathias S.A., Butler A.P., Ireson A.M., Jackson B.M., McIntyre N., and Wheater H.S. Recent advances in modelling nitrate transport in the Chalk unsaturated zone. Q. J. Eng. Geol. Hydrogeol. 40 (2007) 353-359
124. Mayer P.M., Reynolds S.K., McCutchen M.D., and Canfield T.J. Riparian Buffer Width, Vegetative Cover, and Nitrogen Removal Effectiveness: A Review of Current Science and Regulations. EPA/600/R-05/118 (2006), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, OH
125. McGuire J.T., Long D.T., Klug M.J., Haack S.K., and Hyndman D.W. Evaluating behaviour of oxygen, nitrate and sulphate during recharge and quantifying reduction rates in a contaminated aquifer. Environ. Sci. Technol. 36 12 (2002) 2693-2700
126. Moncaster S.J., Bottrell S.H., Tellam J.H., Lloyd J.W., and Konhauser K.O. Migration and attenuation of agrochemical pollutants: insights from isotopic analysis of groundwater sulphate. J. Contam. Hydrol. 43 2 (2000) 147-163
127. Morgan P., Lewis S.T., and Watkinson R.J. Biodegradation of benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and xylenes in gas-condensate-contaminated ground-water. Environ. Pollut. 82 2 (1993) 181-190
128. Morris J.T., Whiting G.J., and Chapelle F.H. Potential denitrification rates in deep sediments from the Southeastern Coastal Plain. Environ. Sci. Technol. 22 7 (1988) 832-836
129. Neff J.C., and Asner G.P. Dissolved organic carbon in terrestrial ecosystems: synthesis and a model. Ecosystems 4 1 (2001) 29-48
130. Neilsen M.E., Fisk M.R., Istok J.D., and Pedersen K. Microbial nitrate respiration of lactate at in situ conditions in ground water from a granitic aquifer situated 450 m underground. Geobiology 4 1 (2006) 43-52
131. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), 2008. Environmental performance of agriculture in OECD countries since 1990, 576 pp.
132. Ottley C.J., Davison W., and Edmunds W.M. Chemical catalysis of nitrate reduction by iron (II). Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 61 9 (1997) 1819-1828
133. Pabich W.J., Valiela I., and Hemond H.F. Relationship between DOC concentration and vadose zone thickness and depth below water table in groundwater of Cape Cod, USA. Biogeochemistry 55 3 (2001) 247-268
134. Paterson K.G., and Schnoor J.L. Vegetative alteration of nitrate fate in unsaturated zone. J. Environ. Eng. 119 5 (1993) 986-993
135. Pinay G., Roques L., and Fabre A. Spatial and temporal patterns of denitrification in a river riparian forest. J. Appl. Ecol. 30 4 (1993) 581-591
136. Postma D., Boesen C., Kristiansen H., and Larsen F. Nitrate reduction in an unconfined sandy aquifer: water chemistry, reduction processes, and geochemical modelling. Water Resour. Res. 27 8 (1991) 2027-2045
137. Pretty J.L., Hildrew A.G., and Trimmer M. Nutrient dynamics in relation to surface-subsurface hydrological exchange in a groundwater fed chalk stream. J. Hydrol. 330 1-2 (2006) 84-100
138. Puckett L.J. Hydrogeologic controls on the transport and fate of nitrate in ground water beneath riparian buffer zones: results from thirteen studies across the United States. Water Sci. Technol. 49 3 (2004) 47-53
139. Puckett L.J., and Cowdery T.K. Transport and fate of nitrate in a glacial outwash aquifer in relation to ground water age, land use practices, and redox processes. J. Environ. Qual. 31 3 (2002) 782-796
140. Puckett L.J., and Hughes W.B. Transport and fate of nitrate and pesticides: hydrogeology and riparian zone processes. J. Environ. Qual. 34 6 (2005) 2278-2292
141. Rabus R., and Widdel F. Utilization of alkylbenzenes during anaerobic growth of pure cultures of denitrifying bacteria on crude oil. Appl. Environ. Microb. 62 4 (1996) 1238-1241
142. Rao N.S. Nitrate pollution and its distribution in the groundwater of Srikakulam district, Andhra Pradesh, India. Environ. Geol. 51 4 (2006) 631-645
143. Rees, J.F., 1981. Landfill Leachate Attenuation in the Lower Chalk. The Role of Microbial Processes. United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority Report AERE-R 10271.
144. Rijnaarts, H.H.M., de Best, J.H., van Liere, H.C., Bosma, T.N.P., 1997. Intrinsic Biodegradation of Chlorinated Solvents: From Thermodynamics to Field. TNO Institute of Environmental Sciences, Energy Research and Process Innovation, Report TNO-MEP-R98/130.
145. Rivett M.O., Smith J.W.N., Buss S.R., and Morgan P. Nitrate occurrence and attenuation in the major aquifers of England and Wales. Q. J. Eng. Geol. Hydrogeol. 40 4 (2007) 335-352
146. Roberts S.C., and McArthur J.M. Surface/groundwater interactions in a UK limestone aquifer. In: Van Brahana J., Eckstein Y., Ongley L.K., Schneider R., and Moore J.E. (Eds). Gambling with Groundwater - Physical, Chemical and Biological Aspects of Aquifer-Stream Relations (1998), American Institute of Hydrology, St Paul, MN 125-130
147. Robertson W.D. Development of steady-state phosphate concentrations in septic system plumes. J. Contam. Hydrol. 19 4 (1995) 289-305
148. Robertson W.D., Cherry J.A., and Sudicky E.A. Groundwater contamination from two small septic systems on sand aquifers. Ground Water 29 1 (1991) 82-92
149. Robertson W.D., Russell B.M., and Cherry J.A. Attenuation of nitrate in aquitard sediments of southern Ontario. J. Hydrol. 180 1 (1996) 267-281
150. Robertson W.D., Schiff S.L., and Ptacek C.J. Review of phosphate mobility and persistence in 10 septic system plumes. Ground Water 36 6 (1998) 1000-1010
151. Robertson W.D., Blowes D.W., Ptacek C.J., and Cherry J.A. Long-term performance on in situ reactive barriers for nitrate remediation. Ground Water 38 5 (2000) 689-695
152. Roy S., Speed C., Bennie J., Swift R., and Wallace P. Identifying the significant factors that influence temporal and spatial trends in nitrate concentrations in the Dorset and Hampshire Basin Chalk aquifer of Southern England. Q. J. Eng. Geol. Hydrogeol. 40 (2007) 377-392
153. Rust C.M., Aelion C.M., and Flora J.R.V. Control of pH during denitrification in sub-surface sediment microcosms using encapsulated phosphate buffer. Water Res. 34 5 (2000) 1447-1454
154. Sáez F., Pozo C., Gómez M.A., Rodelas B., and Gónzalez-López J. Growth and nitrite and nitrous oxide accumulation of Paracoccus denitrificans ATCC 19367 in the presence of selected pesticides. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 22 9 (2003) 1993-1997
155. Saunders D.L., and Kalff J. Denitrification rates in the sediments of Lake Memphremagog, Canada-USA. Water Res. 35 8 (2001) 1897-1904
156. Scheible, O.K., 1993. Manual: Nitrogen Control. United Stated Environmental Protection Agency, Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory Report EPA/625/R-93/010.
157. Schnobrich M.R., Chaplin B.P., Semmens M.J., and Novak P.J. Stimulating hydrogenotrophic denitrification in simulated groundwater containing high dissolved oxygen and nitrate concentrations. Water Res. 41 9 (2007) 1869-1876
158. Schnoor J.L., Licht L.A., McCutcheon S.C., Wolfe N.L., and Carreira L.H. Phytoremediation of organic and nutrient contaminants. Environ. Sci. Technol. 29 7 (1995) 318A-323A
159. Seiler K.-P., and Vomberg I. Denitrification in a karst aquifer with matrix porosity. In: Razowska-Jaworek L., and Sadurski A. (Eds). Nitrates in Groundwater (2005), International Association of Hydrogeologists Selected Papers 5, Balkema, Leiden
160. Seitzinger S., Harrison J.A., Böhlke J.K., Bouwman A.F., Lowrance R., Peterson B., Tobias C., and Van Drecht G. Denitrification across landscapes and waterscapes: a synthesis. Ecol. Appl. 16 6 (2006) 2064-2090
161. Siemens J., Haas M., and Kaupenjohann M. Dissolved organic matter-induced denitrification in subsoils and aquifers?. Geoderma 113 3-4 (2003) 253-271
162. Sierra-Alvarez R., Beristain-Cardoso R., Salazar M., Gómez J., Razo-Flores E., and Field J.A. Chemolithotrophic denitrification with elemental sulfur for groundwater treatment. Water Res. 41 6 (2007) 1253-1262
163. Silgram M., Williams A., Waring R., Neumann I., Hughes A., Mansour M., and Besien T. Effectiveness of the Nitrate Sensitive Areas scheme in reducing groundwater concentrations in England. Q. J. Eng. Geol. Hydrogeol. 38 2 (2005) 117-127
164. Sims G.K. Biological degradation of soil. Adv. Soil Sci. 11 (1990) 289-330
165. Singleton M.J., Esser B.K., Moran J.E., Hudson G.B., McNab W.W., and Harter T. Saturated zone denitrification: potential for natural attenuation of nitrate contamination in shallow groundwater under dairy operations. Environ. Sci. Technol. 41 3 (2007) 759-765
166. Smith R.L., and Duff J.H. Denitrification in a sand and gravel aquifer. Appl. Environ. Microb. 54 5 (1988) 1071-1078
167. Smith J.W.N., and Lerner D.N. Geomorphologic control on pollutant retardation at the groundwater-surface water interface. Hydrol. Process. (2008) 10.1002/hyp.7078
168. Smith M.S., and Tiedje J.M. Phases of denitrification following oxygen depletion in soil. Soil Biol. Biochem. 11 3 (1979) 261-267
169. Smith R.L., Howes B.L., and Duff J.H. Denitrification in nitrate-contaminated groundwater: occurrence in steep vertical geochemical gradients. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 55 7 (1991) 1815-1825
170. Spalding R.F., and Exner M.E. Occurrence of nitrate in groundwater: a review. J. Environ. Qual. 22 (1993) 392-402
171. Spalding R.F., Exner M.E., Martin G.E., and Snow D.D. Effects of sludge disposal on groundwater nitrate concentrations. J. Hydrol. 142 1-4 (1993) 213-228
172. Spence M.J., Bottrell S.H., Higgo J.J.W., Harrison I., and Fallick A.E. Denitrification and phenol degradation in a contaminated aquifer. J. Contam. Hydrol. 53 3-4 (2001) 305-318
173. Spiteria C., Slompa C.P., Regniera P., Meileb C., and Van Cappellena P. Modelling the geochemical fate and transport of wastewater-derived phosphorus in contrasting groundwater systems. J. Contam. Hydrol. 92 1-2 (2007) 87-108
174. Starr R.C., and Gillham R.W. Denitrification and organic carbon availability in two aquifers. Ground Water 31 6 (1993) 934-947
175. Steventon-Barnes, H., 2002. Solid organic matter in UK aquifers: its role in sorption of organic contaminants. PhD thesis, University of London.
176. Stollenwerk K.G. Simulation of phosphate transport in sewage-contaminated groundwater, Cape Cod, Massachusetts. Appl. Geochem. 11 1-2 (1996) 317-324
177. Strous M., and Jetten M.S.M. Anaerobic oxidation of methane and ammonium. Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 58 (2004) 99-117
178. Tang C., and Sakura Y. The characteristics of geochemistry in a headwater wetland, Chiba, Japan. In: Heathwaite, et al. (Ed). Dynamics and Biogeochemistry of River Corridors and Wetlands. IAHS Publication vol. 294 (2005) 167-175
179. Tesoriero A.J., Liebscher H., and Cox S.E. Mechanism and rate of denitrification in an agricultural watershed: electron and mass balance along groundwater flow paths. Water Resour. Res. 36 6 (2000) 1545-1559
180. Triska F.J., Kennedy V.C., Avanzino R.J., Zellweger G.W., and Bencala K.E. Retention and transport of nutrients in a third order stream: hyporheic processes. Ecology 70 6 (1989) 1893-1905
181. Trudell M.R., Gillham R.W., and Cherry J.A. An in situ study of the occurrence and rate of denitrification in a shallow unconfined sand aquifer. J. Hydrol. 83 3-4 (1986) 251-268
182. Ucisik A.S., and Henze M. Biological denitrification of fertilizer wastewater at high chloride concentration. Water SA 30 2 (2004) 191-195
183. van Beek C.G.E.M., and van Puffelen J. Changes in the chemical composition of drinking water after well infiltration in an unconsolidated sandy aquifer. Water Resour. Res. 23 1 (1987) 69-76
184. Vidon P., and Hill A.R. Denitrification and patterns of electron donors and acceptors in eight riparian zones with contrasting hydrogeology. Biogeochemistry 71 2 (2005) 259-283
185. Vitousek P.M., Aber J.D., Howarth R.W., Likens G.E., Matson P.A., Schindler D.W., Schlesinger W.H., and Tilman D.G. Human alteration of the global nitrogen cycle: sources and consequences. Ecol. Appl. 7 3 (1997) 737-750
186. Vogel J.C., Talma A.S., and Heaton T.H.E. Gaseous nitrogen as evidence for denitrification in groundwater. J. Hydrol. 50 1-3 (1981) 191-200
187. Wakida F.T., and Lerner D.N. Non-agricultural sources of groundwater nitrate: a review and case study. Water Res. 39 1 (2005) 3-16
188. West J.M., and Chilton P.J. Aquifers as environments for microbiological activity. Q. J. Eng. Geol. 30 2 (1997) 149-154
189. Whitelaw K., and Edwards R.A. Carbohydrates in the unsaturated zone of the chalk. Chem. Geol. 29 3-4 (1980) 281-291
190. Whitelaw K., and Rees J.F. Nitrate-reducing and ammonium-oxidizing bacteria in the vadose zone of the Chalk aquifer of England. Geomicrobiol. J 2 2 (1980) 179-187
191. Wilhelm S.R., Schiff S.L., and Robertson W.D. Chemical fate and transport in a domestic septic system: unsaturated and saturated zone geochemistry. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 13 2 (1994) 193-203
192. Wilhelm S.R., Schiff S.L., and Robertson W.D. Biogeochemical evolution of domestic waste water in septic systems: 2. Application of conceptual model in sandy aquifers. Ground Water 34 5 (1996) 853-864
193. Wilson G.B., Andrews J.N., and Bath A.H. Dissolved gas evidence for denitrification in the Lincolnshire groundwaters, Eastern England. J. Hydrol. 113 1-4 (1990) 51-60
194. World Heath Organization (WHO). Toxic Cyanobacteria in Water: A Guide to their Public Health Consequences, Monitoring and Management (1999), E & FN Spon, London
195. World Heath Organization (WHO). Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality. third ed. (2004), WHO, Geneva
196. Wrage N., Velthof G.L., van Beusichem M.L., and Oenema O. Role of nitrifier denitrification in the production of nitrous oxide. Soil Biol. Biochem. 33 12 (2001) 1723-1732
197. Yeomans J.C., and Bremner J.M. Denitrification in soils: effects of insecticides and fungicides. Soil Biol. Biochem. 17 4 (1985) 453-456
198. Yoshinari T., and Knowles R. Acetylene inhibition of nitrous oxide reduction by denitrifying bacteria. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Co. 69 (1976) 705-710
199. Yu T., and Bishop P.L. Stratification of microbial metabolic processes and redox potential change in an aerobic biofilm studied using microelectrodes. Water Sci. Technol. 37 4 (1998) 195-198