Beyond parochialism: Southern progressivism, prohibition, and state-building

Journal of Southern History

Volumn 69, Issue 1, 2003, Pages 107-136

  Szymanski, Ann Marie ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF OKLAHOMA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 52149121955     PISSN: 00224642     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/30039842     Document Type: Article

References (209)

1. See, for example, Arthur S. Link, "The Progressive Movement in the South, 1870-1914," North Carolina Historical Review, 23 (April 1946), 172-95
2. C. Vann Woodward, Origins of the New South, 1877-1913 (Baton Rouge, 1951)
3. Albert D. Kirwan, Revolt of the Rednecks: Mississippi Politics, 1876-1925 (Lexington, Ky., 1951)
4. Sheldon Hackney, Populism to Progressivism in Alabama (Princeton, 1969)
5. Alwyn Barr, Reconstruction to Reform: Texas Politics, 1876-1906 (Austin, Tex., and London, 1971)
6. Richard L. Niswonger, Arkansas Democratic Politics, 1896-1920 (Fayetteville, Ark., and London, 1990)
7. Alton DuMar Jones, "Progressivism in Georgia, 1898-1918" (Ph.D. dissertation, Emory University, 1963)
8. David Alan Harris, "Racists and Reformers: A Study of Progressivism in Alabama, 1896-1911" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 1967)
9. and Charles Granville Hamilton, "Mississippi Politics in the Progressive Era, 1904-1920" (Ph.D. dissertation, Vanderbilt University, 1958)
10. George Brown Tindall, The Persistent Tradition in New South Politics (Baton Rouge, 1975)
11. Raymond H. Pulley, Old Virginia Restored: An Interpretation of the Progressive Impulse, 1870-1930 (Charlottesville, 1968)
12. J. Morgan Kousser, "Progressivism - For Middle-Class Whites Only: North Carolina Education, 1880-1910," Journal of Southern History, 46 (May 1980), 169-94
13. Dewey W. Grantham, Southern Progressivism: The Reconciliation of Progress and Tradition (Knoxville, 1983), xv (quotation)
14. For a good assessment of Grantham's work and southern Progressivism more generally, see David P. Thelen, "Where Did Progressivism Go? A Search Around the South," Georgia Historical Quarterly, 68 (Spring 1984), 60-70
15. Paul L. Harvey, "Southern Baptists and the Social Gospel: White Religious Progressivism in the South, 1900-1925," Fides et Historia, 27 (Summer/Fall 1995), 59-77 (first quotation on p. 62)
16. George Harrison Gilliam, "Making Virginia Progressive: Courts and Parties, Railroads and Regulators, 1890-1910," Virginia Magazine of History and Biography, 107 (Spring 1999), 189-222
17. Mary S. Hoffschwelle, Rebuilding the Rural Southern Community: Reformers, Schools, and Homes in Tennessee, 1900-1930 (Knoxville, 1998), chaps. 1-3
18. James L. Leloudis II, "School Reform in the New South: The Woman's Association for the Betterment of Public School Houses in North Carolina, 1902-1919," Journal of American History, 69 (March 1983), 898-99
19. Judith N. McArthur, Creating the New Woman: The Rise of Southern Women's Progressive Culture in Texas, 1893-1918 (Urbana and Chicago, 1998), 6 (second quotation)
20. William A. Link, The Paradox of Southern Progressivism, 1880-1930 (Chapel Hill and London, 1992), 100-106, 127-30, 142-45, 174-82, 196-99, 322-23, and chap. 7
21. Major works that lend credence to Link's claims include John Ettling, The Germ of Laziness: Rockefeller Philanthropy and Public Health in the New South (Cambridge, Mass., and London, 1981)
22. Elizabeth H. Davidson, Child Labor Legislation in the Southern Textile States (Chapel Hill, 1939)
23. William A. Link, A Hard Country and a Lonely Place: Schooling, Society, and Reform in Rural Virginia, 1870-1920 (Chapel Hill and London, 1986), esp. 73-89
24. and William A. Link, '"The Harvest is Ripe but the Laborers are Few': The Hookworm Crusade in North Carolina, 1909-1915," North Carolina Historical Review, 67 (January 1990), 1-27
25. Grantham, Southern Progressivism, 160-61
26. Link, Paradox of Southern Progressivism, 31-32, 95-96
27. Tindall, Persistent Tradition in New South Politics, 57-59
28. Thomas R. Pegram, "Temperance Politics and Regional Political Culture: The Anti-Saloon League in Maryland and the South, 1907-1915," Journal of Southern History, 63 (February 1997), 59-64 (quotation on p. 64)
29. Pegram, "Temperance Politics and Regional Political Culture," 59-71 (quotation on p. 59)
30. Link, Paradox of Southern Progressivism, 100-106
31. The best account of the ASL's development as an organization is K. Austin Kerr, Organized for Prohibition: A New History of the Anti-Saloon League (New Haven and London, 1985)
32. For a classic history of the league see Peter H. Odegard, Pressure Politics: The Story of the Anti-Saloon League (New York, 1928)
33. See also Jack S. Blocker Jr., Retreat from Reform: The Prohibition Movement in the United States, 1890-1913 (Westport, Conn., and London, 1976), 158-59
34. Link, Paradox of Southern Progressivism, xi-xii, 322-24
35. Robert E. Ireland, "Prison Reform, Road Building, and Southern Progressivism: Joseph Hyde Pratt and the Campaign for 'Good Roads and Good Men,'" North Carolina Historical Review, 68 (April 1991), 125-57 (quotation on p. 156)
36. For similar accounts of rural resistance to southern Progressivism see Harvey, "Southern Baptists and the Social Gospel," 62-77
37. Hoffschwelle, Rebuilding the Rural Southern Community
38. and Jeanette Keith, Country People in the New South: Tennessee's Upper Cumberland (Chapel Hill and London, 1995)
39. Purley A. Baker to Ernest H. Cherrington, December 12, 1907, Series XIII, reel 1, Temperance and Prohibition Papers: A Joint Microfilm Publication of the Ohio Historical Society, Michigan Historical Collections, and Woman's Christian Temperance Union (microfilm; Columbus, Ohio, 1977); hereinafter cited as Temperance and Prohibition Papers
40. Proceedings, Sixth National Anti-Saloon Convention (Baltimore, 1902), 72
41. Proceedings, Ninth Annual Convention of the Anti-Saloon League of America (Harrisburg, Pa., 1904), 47-48, 97
42. Proceedings, Tenth Annual Convention of the Anti-Saloon League of America (Harrisburg, Pa., 1905), 93
43. Proceedings, Sixteenth National Convention of the Anti-Saloon League of America (Westerville, Ohio, 1915), 421, 471-72 (quotations on p. 421)
44. Ann-Marie Szymanski, Pathways to Prohibition: Radicals, Moderates, and Social Movement Outcomes (Durham, N.C., forthcoming), chaps. 2 and 6
45. Gilman M. Ostrander, The Prohibition Movement in California, 1848-1933 (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1957), 85-97
46. Blocker, Retreat from Reform, 41-43, 158-61
47. Robert E. Wenger, "The Anti-Saloon League in Nebraska Politics, 1898-1910," Nebraska History, 52 (Fall 1971), 278-88
48. Thomas R. Pegram, "The Dry Machine: The Formation of the Anti-Saloon League of Illinois," Illinois Historical Journal, 83 (Autumn 1990), 178-79. When capitalized, Prohibitionist refers to a Prohibition Party activist; in contrast prohibitionist refers to a supporter of prohibition as a public policy. This distinction follows contemporary usage
49. Morton Keller, Regulating a New Society: Public Policy and Social Change in America, 1900-1933 (Cambridge, Mass., and London, 1994), 5
50. The Georgia Prohibition Association was the driving force behind that state's 1899-1902 campaign for statewide prohibition, an effort that preceded the formation of a permanent Georgia ASL by four years. In Mississippi the ASL lacked an official affiliate until 1911, three years after the Mississippi Woman's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) and the State Prohibition Convention had secured a state prohibition law. Meanwhile, the Florida and South Carolina chapters of the WCTU launched crusades for such measures in 1905 and 1907, respectively, both of which predated the league's establishment of branches in those states. A state conference of South Carolina drys had also initiated a state prohibition campaign as early as 1901. Finally, the Texas Local Option Association inaugurated a campaign for statewide prohibition during the winter of 1907-8, at the same time that the Texas ASL was undergoing a reorganization. See William Graham Davis, "Attacking 'the Matchless Evil': Temperance and Prohibition in Mississippi, 1817-1908" (Ph.D. dissertation, Mississippi State University, 1975), chap. 8
51. T. J. Bailey, Prohibition in Mississippi, or Anti-Liquor Legislation from Territorial Days, with its Results in the Counties (Jackson, Miss., 1917), 106-32
52. H. A. Ivy, Rum on the Run in Texas: A Brief History of Prohibition in the Lone Star State (Dallas, Tex., 1910), 35-36, 58-62
53. Sybal Hazel, "Statewide Prohibition Campaigns in Texas" (M.A. thesis, Texas Technological College, 1942), 56-57
54. Proceedings, Twelfth Annual Convention of the Anti-Saloon League of America (Harrisburg, Pa., 1907), 84-85
55. Proceedings, Fourteenth National Convention of the Anti-Saloon League of America (Westerville, Ohio, [1912]), 125
56. Proceedings, Fifteenth National Convention of the Anti-Saloon League of America, Twenty Year Jubilee Convention (Columbus, Ohio, 1913), 284-86
57. Proceedings, Sixteenth National Convention of the Anti-Saloon League, 407-9, 522
58. "The Sensible Prohibitionists of Georgia," American Issue, 7 (April 1900), 9
59. "Good Anti-Saloon League Doctrine," American Issue, 8 (September 27, 1901), 3
60. "South Carolina Anti-Saloon League," American Issue, 16 (May 1908), 8
61. Report of the Thirty-Fourth Annual Convention of the National Woman's Christian Temperance Union (1907), 150, in Series III, reel 7, Temperance and Prohibition Papers
62. and Margaret D. Ellis, "Department of Legislation," Union Signal, 31 (December 14, 1905), 11
63. See, for example, "Sensible Prohibitionists of Georgia," 9
64. "The Defeat of State Prohibition," Union Signal, 28 (March 6, 1902), 5
65. Helen M. Stoddard, "Local Prohibition in Texas," Union Signal, 30 (June 2, 1904), 2
66. "Mississippi," Union Signal, 31 (March 9, 1905), 3-4
67. Ivy, Rum on the Run in Texas, 35-36
68. and Daniel Jay Whitener, Prohibition in North Carolina, 1715-1946 (Chapel Hill, [1946]), 153
69. Proceedings, Sixteenth National Convention of the Anti-Saloon League, 409 (quotations)
70. John Corrigan, "The Prohibition Wave in the South," American Review of Reviews, 36 (September 1907), 331
71. Lovick P. Winter, "Prohibition in Georgia," The Independent, 63 (August 22, 1907), 444
72. Alton DuMar Jones, "The Administration of Governor Joseph M. Terrell Viewed in the Light of the Progressive Movement," Georgia Historical Quarterly, 48 (September 1964), 271-75, 282, 286
73. Jones, "Progressivism in Georgia," 185-87
74. Dewey W. Grantham Jr., Hoke Smith and the Politics of the New South (Baton Rouge, 1958), 131-32
75. "Georgia Passes State Prohibition Law," American Issue, 15 (August 9, 1907), 14-15 (quotation on p. 14)
76. Mary Harris Armor, "How the Prohibition Law Passed the Georgia House," Union Signal, 33 (August 15, 1907), 4
77. Proceedings, Eleventh Annual Convention of the Anti-Saloon League of America (Harrisburg, Pa., 1906), 77-78
78. Proceedings, Twelfth Annual Convention of the Anti-Saloon League, 86
79. John T. Graves, "The Fight Against Alcohol: Third Article - Georgia Pioneers the Prohibition Crusade," Cosmopolitan, 45 (June 1908), 83-90
80. Jones, "Administration of Governor Joseph M. Terrell Viewed in the Light of the Progressive Movement," 281-82
81. A. J. McKelway, "State Prohibition in Georgia and the South," Outlook, 86 (August 31, 1907), 947-49
82. Winter, "Prohibition in Georgia," 442-44
83. Thirty-Fourth Annual Report of the Woman's Christian Temperance Union of Massachusetts (Boston, 1908), 41, copy available in the Boston Public Library
84. "Prohibition in Georgia," Outlook, 86 (August 10, 1907), 757
85. Frank Foxcroft, "Prohibition in the South," Atlantic Monthly, 101 (May 1908), 632
86. Davis, "Attacking 'the Matchless Evil,'" 218-28
87. Harriet B. Kells, "The Defeat of Statewide Prohibition," Union Signal, 28 (March 6, 1902), 5 (first quotation)
88. Bailey, Prohibition in Mississippi, 106-8
89. Charles Granville Hamilton, "The Turning Point: The Legislative Session of 1908," Journal of Mississippi History, 25 (April 1963), 101
90. Hamilton, "Mississippi Politics in the Progressive Era," 77
91. Kirwan, Revolt of the Rednecks, 118-21
92. Hamilton, "Mississippi Politics in the Progressive Era," 25-26, 96-97, 101, 104, 108, 111-14, 124, 153
93. Hamilton, "Turning Point," 93-103
94. Nannie Pitts McLemore, "The Progressive Era," in Richard Aubrey McLemore, ed., A History of Mississippi (2 vols.; Hattiesburg, Miss., 1973), II, 41-45
95. Proceedings, Fourteenth National Convention of the Anti-Saloon League, 125
96. For Noel's alliance with temperance and church leaders see Bailey, Prohibition in Mississippi, 119, 123
97. "Insight," Collier's, 40 (February 8, 1908), 7
98. James Benson Sellers, The Prohibition Movement in Alabama, 1702 to 1943 (Chapel Hill, 1943), 176-78
99. Paul E. Isaac, Prohibition and Politics: Turbulent Decades in Tennessee, 1885-1920 (Knoxville, 1965), chaps. 9-11
100. Niswonger, Arkansas Democratic Politics, 200-201
101. Lewis L. Gould, Progressives and Prohibitionists: Texas Democrats in the Wilson Era (Austin, Tex., and London, 1973), 28-57
102. John J. Guthrie Jr., Keepers of the Spirits: The Judicial Response to Prohibition Enforcement in Florida, 1885-1935 (Westport, Conn., and London, 1998), 27
103. Isaac, Prohibition and Politics, 160-69
104. Sellers, Prohibition Movement in Alabama, 176-85
105. Jack S. Blocker Jr., American Temperance Movements: Cycles of Reform (Boston, 1989), 107
106. "South Getting Rid of Whisky: Booker T. Washington on Temperance Wave," Boston Globe, November 18, 1907
107. C. C. Pearson and J. Edwin Hendricks, Liquor and Anti-Liquor in Virginia, 1619-1919 (Durham, N.C., 1967), chap. 13
108. George Murrell Hunt, "A History of the Prohibition Movement in Arkansas" (M.A. thesis, University of Arkansas, 1933), 117-25
109. "The Local Question," Union Signal, 16 (March 6, 1890), 8 (first quotation)
110. D. Leigh Colvin, Prohibition in the United States: A History of the Prohibition Party and of the Prohibition Movement (New York, 1926), 360-61 (second quotation on p. 361)
111. Szymanski, Pathways to Prohibition, chap. 2
112. Joseph Rowntree and Arthur Sherwell, The Temperance Problem and Social Reform (abridged ed.; London, 1901), 75, 77
113. "Prohibition in Georgia," 757-58 (first quotation on p. 757)
114. Foxcroft, "Prohibition in the South," 627-33 (second quotation on p. 633)
115. "State Prohibition in North Carolina," Outlook, 89 (June 6, 1908), 272
116. Samuel J. Barrows, "The Temperance Tidal Wave, Part II," in George M. Hammeil, ed., The Passing of the Saloon: An Authentic and Official Presentation of the Anti-Liquor Crusade in America (Cincinnati, 1908), 204, 209-15
117. H. A. Scomp, "Local Option," in Cyclopaedia of Temperance and Prohibition (New York, 1891), 392-96 (first, third, fourth, and fifth quotations on p. 393)
118. B. W. Williams, "Methods of Temperance Reform," Union Signal, 16 (February 20, 1890), 3 (second quotation)
119. H. A. Scomp, "Local Option Not Satisfactory," in The Political Prohibitionist for 1888: Handbook for the Aggressive Temperance People of the United States (New York and London, 1888), 11-12
120. John B. Finch, "What, Why, and How," in Charles Arnold McCully, ed., The People Versus the Liquor Traffic: The Speeches of John B. Finch (New York, 1887), 207-9 (sixth quotation on p. 207)
121. L. C. Pitner, "Local Option and Nullification," The Reason, 1 (November 1886), 163-64
122. "Democratic Party," in Cyclopaedia of Temperance and Prohibition, 150-51 (quotations)
123. See also "Local Option Versus Prohibition," Union Signal, 20 (February 22, 1894), 9
124. "The WCTU: The Fourteenth Annual Convention Now in Session at Port Huron," Detroit Free Press, June 1, 1887, p. 4
125. Lathrap also noted that northern "penalties for disobedience of our liquor laws have never been adequate to the crime . . . , while at the South the man who disobeys liquor laws is punished severely." For a similar distinction between northern and southern liquor law enforcement see "Local Option at the South," Law and Order, 1 (June 13, 1885), 294
126. Alphonso A. Hopkins, Profit and Loss in Man (New York and London, 1909), 318-19 (quotation on p. 319)
127. "Local Option in the South," Union Signal, 20 (April 9, 1896), 11 (Willard quotation)
128. "Democratic Party," 150 (first quotation)
129. Scomp, "Local Option Not Satisfactory," 11
130. Josiah W. Bailey, "The Political Treatment of the Drink Evil," South Atlantic Quarterly, 5 (April 1907), 118-19
131. Pearson and Hendricks, Liquor and Anti-Liquor in Virginia, 172
132. Mrs. J. Howard and Mrs. Julia R. Parish, eds., Brief History Containing Important Official Action of Michigan Woman's Christian Temperance Union (n.p., 1912), 37
133. Anna Gordon to Mrs. Josiah Willard, January 11, 1882, Series III, reel 12, Temperance and Prohibition Papers (second quotation; emphasis in original)
134. Howard Hyde Russell, "Church and College Versus Saloon, Berea, Ohio" and "The Governor Helps Quietly - Oberlin Wins the Beatty Law," unpublished manuscripts, Box 2, Howard Hyde Russell Papers (Bentley Historical Library, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich.; hereinafter cited as BHL)
135. Louis A. Banks, "The Anti-Saloon League, Origin and Personnel," in Hammell, ed., Passing of the Saloon, 188-91 (quotation on p. 188)
136. W. H. Pearce, "A Story of Origins: The Ohio Anti-Saloon League," American Issue, 12 (November 2, 1904), 10-11
137. Herrick Johnson, "Principles and Method in the Temperance Reform," Anti-Saloon, 1 (October 1894), 8 (quotation)
138. Norman Harding Dohn, The History of the Anti-Saloon League (Ph.D. dissertation, Ohio State University, 1959), 23-24, 36-38
139. Russell, "Governor Helps Quietly - Oberlin Wins the Beatty Law," 11 (first quotation)
140. "Preliminary Tidings," Anti-Saloon, 2 (December 1895), 3 (second quotation)
141. S. E. Nicholson, "The Local-Option Movement," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 32 (November 1908), 3 (third, fourth, and fifth quotations)
142. "County Option in Texas," Anti-Saloon, 2 (December 1895), 7 (sixth quotation)
143. The Year Book of the United States Brewers' Association (New York, 1910), 13-14, 22-23, 128-29
144. Odegard, Pressure Politics, 116-19
145. Norman H. Clark, The Dry Years: Prohibition and Social Change in Washington (revised ed.; Seattle, 1988), 88-91 (first quotation on p. 88)
146. "Forms of Local Option," American Issue, 14 (March 30, 1906), 2 (second and third quotations)
147. "Annual Report, 1902, of the American Anti-Saloon League," p. 18, in Folder 63, Box 2, Russell Papers
148. "How the Victory Was Won in Oregon," American Issue, 11 (July 8, 1904), 6 (fourth quotation)
149. Proceedings, Tenth Annual Convention of the Anti-Saloon League, 84 (fifth quotation)
150. "Temperance Forces Gaining in Wisconsin," Union Signal, 33 (February 14, 1907), 12 (first quotation)
151. Kerr, Organized for Prohibition, 76-80, 99-111
152. Marshall L. Cook to Joseph S. Barnette, October 15, 1907, Box 2, Marshall L. Cook Papers (BHL) (second quotation)
153. "Her Heart Full of Hope," Detroit Free Press, November 9, 1907, p. 6 (third quotation)
154. Clara C. Chapin, "The Merits of Local Option," Union Signal, 34 (June 4, 1908), 5 (fourth quotation)
155. Thirty-Fourth Annual Report of the Woman's Christian Temperance Union of Massachusetts, 41
156. J. Frank Hanly, "Anti-Liquor Progress in the North," American Issue, 18 (January 1910), 4-5
157. Year Book of the United States Brewers' Association, 51-52
158. Proceedings, 31st Annual Convention of the WCTU of the 6th District of Michigan (1908), 37 (quotation), in District Records, Box 3, Records of the Michigan Woman's Christian Temperance Union (BHL)
159. George W. Morrow to Junius Emery Beal, March 12, 1910, Box 2, Junius Emery Beal Papers (BHL)
160. Kerr, Organized for Prohibition, 183
161. Colvin, Prohibition in the United States, 434-35
162. Richard F. Hamm, "Southerners and the Shaping of the Eighteenth Amendment, 1914-1917," Georgia Journal of Southern Legal History, 1 (Spring/Summer 1991), 81-107 (third and fourth quotations on p. 88)
163. Other recent studies that consider implementation and enforcement include Gilliam, "Making Virginia Progressive," 189-222
164. Guthrie, Keepers of the Spirits
165. Dianna Everett, "The Wettest Drought in the History of Texas: A Survey of the Enforcement of the Eighteenth Amendment and the Dean Act, 1920-1933,"
166. Panhandle-Plains Historical Review, 52 (1979), 39-61
167. and John J. Guthrie Jr., "Hard Times, Hard Liquor, and Hard Luck: Selective Enforcement of Prohibition in North Florida, 1928-1933," Florida Historical Quarterly, 72 (April 1994), 435-52
168. National Commission on Law Observance and Enforcement, Report on the Enforcement of the Prohibition Laws of the United States (Washington, D.C., 1931), 72, 77
169. J. C. Burnham, "New Perspectives on the Prohibition 'Experiment' of the 1920s," Journal of Social History, 2 (Fall 1968), 58
170. For the use of hospital admission rates for alcoholic psychosis as an indicator of alcohol consumption, see Burnham, "New Perspectives on the Prohibition 'Experiment' of the 1920s," 60
171. Clark Warburton, The Economic Results of Prohibition (New York and London, 1932), 214-16
172. and Jeffrey A. Miron and Jeffrey Zwiebel, "Alcohol Consumption During Prohibition," American Economic Review, 81 (May 1991), 243
173. For the rates of alcoholic psychosis in the various states see Frederick W. Brown, "Prohibition and Mental Hygiene: Effects on Mental Health - Specific Disorders," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 163 (September 1932), 61-88
174. and Horatio M. Pollock and Frederick W. Brown, "Recent Statistics of Alcoholic Mental Disease," Mental Hygiene, 13 (July 1929), 591-614
175. "Final Returns in 'The Digest's' Prohibition Poll," Literary Digest, 74 (September 9, 1922), 11-13
176. "The Huge Poll's Final Report: All Records Outdone," ibid., 105 (May 24, 1930), 7-9
177. "The Great Prohibition Poll's Final Report," ibid., 113 (April 30, 1932), 6-7, 39
178. Though suggestive, these polls should not be considered completely reliable, given the likelihood of sampling problems that favored the wets. Nevertheless, historian Robert Smith Bader maintains that these "polls proved to be accurate in identifying national trends and the relative sentiment among the several states." See his Prohibition in Kansas: A History (Lawrence, Kans., 1986), 204
179. and John C. Gebhart, "Movement Against Prohibition," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 163 (September 1932), 172-73
180. For the South's role in the repeal of prohibition see David E. Kyvig, Repealing National Prohibition (Chicago, 1979), 178-82, 187-88
181. For accounts of prohibition enforcement outside of the eleven southern states see Larry Engelmann, Intemperance: The Lost War Against Liquor (New York and London, 1979)
182. Donald Bain, War in Illinois (Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1978)
183. Bader, Prohibition in Kansas, chaps. 4-9
184. Jimmie Lewis Franklin, Born Sober: Prohibition in Oklahoma, 1907-1959 (Norman, Okla., 1971), chaps. 3, 5, and 6
185. Clark, Dry Years, chaps. 10-11
186. Ostrander, Prohibition Movement in California, chaps. 9-10
187. Edison Klein Putman, "The Prohibition Movement in Idaho, 1863-1934" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Idaho, 1979), chap. 14
188. William Elliott West, "Dry Crusade: The Prohibition Movement in Colorado, 1858-1933" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Colorado, 1971), chap. 9
189. Robert Gordon Aagard, "The Prohibition Movement in Wyoming" (M.A. thesis, University of Wyoming, 1966), chaps. 3-9
190. David J. McCullough, "Bone Dry? Prohibition New Mexico Style, 1918-1933," New Mexico Historical Review, 63 (January 1988), 25-42
191. Kenneth D. Rose, "'Dry' Los Angeles and Its Liquor Problems in 1924," Southern California Quarterly, 69 (Spring 1987), 51-74
192. and Rose, "Wettest in the West: San Francisco and Prohibition in 1924," California History, 65 (December 1986), 284-95
193. Engelmann, Intemperance, 26-27, 70-150
194. In all three Literary Digest polls conducted on the subject of prohibition (in 1922, 1930, and 1932), Virginia participants never supported prohibition to the same extent as the participants from Alabama, Arkansas, Georgia, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, and Texas. Instead, like residents of Louisiana and Florida, a plurality of Virginians preferred modification of the prohibition laws to enforcement or repeal in 1922; a plurality preferred repeal of prohibition to modification or enforcement in 1930; and a majority supported repeal in 1932. See "Final Returns in 'The Digest's' Prohibition Poll," 11-13
195. "Huge Poll's Final Report," 7-9
196. and "Great Prohibition Poll's Final Report," 6-7, 39
197. Prior to 1920, only sixteen of the North's thirty-seven states had experimented with state-level enforcement mechanisms. For evidence to this effect see Ann-Marie Szymanski, "Dry Compulsions: Prohibition and the Creation of State-Level Enforcement Agencies," Journal of Policy History, 11, no. 2 (1999), 135, 145 n. 54
198. Larry E. Nelson, "Utah Goes Dry," Utah Historical Quarterly, 41 (Fall 1973), 345 (first quotation), 348-51
199. Bruce T. Dyer, "A Study of the Forces Leading to the Adoption of Prohibition in Utah" (M.S. thesis, Brigham Young University, 1958), 121-23
200. Putman, "Prohibition Movement in Idaho," 356-59 (third quotation on p. 357)
201. Hugh Lovin, "The Nonpartisan League and Progressive Renascence in Idaho, 1919-1924," Idaho Yesterdays, 32 (Fall 1988), 4-5
202. Arthur F. Howington, "John Barley Corn Subdued: The Enforcement of Prohibition in Alabama," Alabama Review, 23 (July 1970), 212-25
203. "Follow-Up Tactics - Anti-Saloon Strategy in the New South," American Issue, 18 (April 1910), 2-3
204. Elizabeth Sanders, Roots of Reform: Farmers, Workers, and the American State, 1877-1917 (Chicago and London, 1999)
205. "periphery farmers" defined on pp. 27-29
206. Philip J. Ethington, "Urban Constituencies, Regimes, and Policy Innovation in the Progressive Era: An Analysis of Boston, Chicago, New York City, and San Francisco," Studies in American Political Development, 7 (Fall 1993), 275-315 (quotation on p. 301)
207. Kenneth Finegold, Experts and Politicians: Reform Challenges to Machine Politics in New York Cleveland, and Chicago (Princeton, 1995)
208. James J. Connolly, The Triumph of Ethnic Progressivism: Urban Political Culture in Boston, 1900-1925 (Cambridge, Mass., and London, 1998)
209. see also Maureen A. Flanagan, Charter Reform in Chicago (Carbondale and Edwardsville, Ill., 1987)