Urological implications of cyclophosphamide and ifosfamide

Scandinavian Journal of Urology and Nephrology

Volumn 42, Issue 4, 2008, Pages 309-317

  Lawson, Malcolm ^a   Vasilaras, Arthur ^a   De Vries, Annamarie ^a,c   Mactaggart, Peter ^a,b,c   Nicol, David ^a,c  

^a PRINCESS ALEXANDRA HOSPITAL   (Australia)

^b Queen Elizabeth II Hospital   (Australia)

^c UNIVERSITY OF QUEENSLAND   (Australia)

Author keywords

Cyclophosphamide; Haemorrhagic cystitis; Ifosfamide; Nephrotoxicit; Oxazaphosphorine; Transitional cell carcinoma

Indexed keywords

ACROLEIN; AGMATINE; ALDEHYDE DEHYDROGENASE; ALUMINUM POTASSIUM SULFATE; AMIFOSTINE; AMINO ACID; BICARBONATE; CHLOROACETALDEHYDE; CISPLATIN; CYCLIC AMP; CYCLOPHOSPHAMIDE; CYTOCHROME P450; FORMALDEHYDE; GLUCOSE PHOSPHATE; GLUTATHIONE; IFOSFAMIDE; MESNA; NITRIC OXIDE; OXAZAPHOSPHORINE; TROFOSFAMIDE;

ABDOMINAL DISCOMFORT; ABDOMINAL PAIN; ACUTE TOXICITY; ALLERGIC REACTION; ALOPECIA; ANALGESIC AGENT ABUSE; ANTINEOPLASTIC ACTIVITY; APLASTIC ANEMIA; ARTHRALGIA; ATAXIA; AUTOIMMUNE DISEASE; AZOOSPERMIA; B LYMPHOCYTE; BK VIRUS; BLADDER CARCINOMA; BLADDER FIBROSIS; BLADDER IRRIGATION; BONE MARROW SUPPRESSION; BONE MARROW TRANSPLANTATION; BRAIN DISEASE; BREAST CANCER; CANCER ADJUVANT THERAPY; CANCER CHEMOTHERAPY; CANCER PATIENT; CANCER RADIOTHERAPY; CANCER SURVIVAL; CARDIOTOXICITY; CHRONIC INFLAMMATION; CHRONIC TOXICITY; COMPUTER ASSISTED TOMOGRAPHY; CONFUSION; CYSTECTOMY; CYSTOSCOPY; CYTOTOXICITY; DIARRHEA; DIURESIS; DNA POLYMORPHISM; DOSE RESPONSE; DRUG MECHANISM; DRUG MEGADOSE; DRUG METABOLISM; DRUG SAFETY; DRUG WITHDRAWAL; ENVIRONMENTAL FACTOR; ESTROGEN THERAPY; EXTRAPYRAMIDAL SYMPTOM; EXTRAPYRAMIDAL SYNDROME; FANCONI RENOTUBULAR SYNDROME; GENE DIRECTED ENZYME PRODRUG THERAPY; GERM CELL TUMOR; GLOMERULONEPHRITIS; GLOMERULUS FILTRATION RATE; GRAFT VERSUS HOST REACTION; HALLUCINATION; HEADACHE; HEMATOPOIETIC STEM CELL; HEMATURIA; HEMORRHAGIC CYSTITIS; HIGH RISK POPULATION; HISTOPATHOLOGY; HUMAN; HYDRATION; HYPERBARIC OXYGEN; IDIOPATHIC THROMBOCYTOPENIC PURPURA; IMMUNOSUPPRESSIVE TREATMENT; INTERSTITIAL PNEUMONIA; JC VIRUS; KIDNEY CONCENTRATING CAPACITY; LATENT PERIOD; LD 50; LEIOMYOSARCOMA; LEUKEMIA; LEUKOPENIA; LIMB PAIN; LONG TERM EXPOSURE; LUNG CANCER; LUNG FIBROSIS; LUNG SMALL CELL CANCER; LYMPHOMA; MEDICAL LITERATURE; MEDLINE; MICTURITION DISORDER; MULTIPLE MYELOMA; NATURAL KILLER CELL; NAUSEA; NAUSEA AND VOMITING; NEPHROBLASTOMA; NEPHROTOXICITY; NEUROBLASTOMA; NONHODGKIN LYMPHOMA; NONHUMAN; OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE; OSTEOSARCOMA; PARASITOSIS; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROPHYLAXIS; REVIEW; RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS; SCHISTOSOMIASIS; SEIZURE; SKIN CANCER; SOFT TISSUE SARCOMA; SOLID TUMOR; SQUAMOUS CELL CARCINOMA; STEM CELL TRANSPLANTATION; SURVIVAL TIME; SYSTEMIC LUPUS ERYTHEMATOSUS; T LYMPHOCYTE; TERATOGENICITY; TESTIS CANCER; THROMBOCYTOPENIA; TRANSITIONAL CELL CARCINOMA; TUBULAR DYSFUNCTION; ULTRASOUND; UNSPECIFIED SIDE EFFECT; URINARY DIVERSION; URINARY EXCRETION; URINARY TRACT; URINARY TRACT CARCINOMA; URINARY TRACT INFLAMMATION; URINE VOLUME; UROGENITAL TRACT TUMOR; UROLITHIASIS; UROTHELIUM; VOMITING; WEGENER GRANULOMATOSIS;

ANTINEOPLASTIC AGENTS; CARCINOMA, TRANSITIONAL CELL; CYCLOPHOSPHAMIDE; CYSTITIS; HUMANS; IFOSFAMIDE; UROLOGIC DISEASES; UROLOGIC NEOPLASMS;

EID: 51649120311     PISSN: 00365599     EISSN: 16512065     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/00365590701570953     Document Type: Review

References (112)

1. Fenselau C, Kan M-NN, Rao S, Myles A, Friedman OM, Colvin M. Identification of aldophosphamide as a metabolite of cyclophosphamide in vitro and in vivo in humans. Cancer Res 1977;37:2538-43.
2. Chen C-S, Lin JT, Goss KA, He YA, Halpert JR, Waxman DJ. Activation of the anticancer prodrugs cyclophosphamide and ifosfamide: identification of cytochrome P450 2B enzymes and site-specific mutants with improved enzyme kinetics. Mol Pharmacol 2004;65:1278-85.
3. Zhang J, Tian Q, Yung Chan S, Li S, Zhou S, Duan W. Metabolism and transport of oxazaphosphorines and the clinical implications. Drug Metab Rev 2005;37:611-703.
4. Colvin OM. An overview of cyclophosphamide development and clinical applications. Curr Pharm Des 1999;5:555-60.
5. Sladek NE. Metabolism of oxazaphosphorines. Pharmacol Ther 1988;37:301-55.
6. Kaijser GP, Beifnen JH, Jeunink JL, Bult A, Keizer HJ, deKraker J, Underberg WJ. Determination of chloroacetaldehyde, a metabolite of oxazaphosphorine cytostatic drugs, in plasma. J Chromatogr A 1993;614:253-9.
7. Kaijser GP, Korst A, Beifnen JH, Bult A, Underberg WJ. The analysis of ifosfamide and its metabolites (Review). Anticancer Res 1993;13(5A):1311-24.
8. Wagner T. Ifosfamide clinical pharmacokinetics. Clin Pharmacokinet 1994;26:439-56.
9. Bruggemann SK, Kisro J, Wagner T. Ifosfamide cytotoxicity on human tumor and renal cells: role of chloroacetaldehyde in comparison to 4-hydroxyifosfamide. Cancer Res 1997;57:2676-80.
10. Kamen BA, Frenkel E, Colvin OM. Ifosfamide: should the honeymoon be over? J Clin Oncol 1995;13:307-9.
11. Bourscaux F, Brock N. Chemotherapeutic action of a cyclic nitrogen mustard phosphamide ester(B518-ASTA) in experimental tumours. Nature 1958;181:931.
12. Bergh J. Best use of adjuvant systemic therapies II, chemotherapy aspects: dose of chemotherapy-cytotoxicity, duration and responsiveness. Breast 2003;12:529-37.
13. Makinodan T, Santos GW, Quinn RP. Immunosuppressive drugs. Pharmacol Rev 1970;22:189-247.
14. Gourley MF, Austin HA III, Scott D, Yarboro CH, Vaughan EM, Muir J, et al. Methylprednisolone and cyclophosphamide, alone or in combination, in patients with lupus nephritis. A randomized, controlled trial. Ann Intern Med 1996;125:549-57.
15. Brodsky RA. High dose cyclophosphamide treatment for autoimmune disorders. ScientificWorldJournal 2002;2:1808-15.
16. Richmond R, McMillan TW, Luqmani RA. Optimisation of cyclophosphamide therapy in systemic vasculitis. Clin Pharmacokinet 1998;34:79-90.
17. Dutz JP, Ho VC. Immunosuppressive agents in dermatology. An update. Dermatol Clin 1998;16:235-51.
18. Illei GG, Austin HA, Crane M, Collins L, Gourley MF, Yarboro CH, et al. Combination therapy with pulse cyclophosphamide plus pulse methylprednisolone improves long-term renal outcome without adding toxicity in patients with lupus nephritis. Ann Intern Med 2001;135:248-57.
19. de Groot K, Adu D, Savage CO. The value of pulse cyclophosphamide in ANCA-associated vasculitis: meta-analysis and critical review. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2001;16:2018-27.
20. Durkan AM, Hodson EM, Willis NS, Craig JC. Immunosuppressive agents in childhood nephrotic syndrome: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Kidney Int 2001;59:1919-27.
21. Bansal VK, Beto JA. Treatment of lupus nephritis: a meta-analysis of clinical trials. Am J Kidney Dis 1997;29:193-9.
22. Beimler JHM, Andrassy K. Cyclophosphamide treatment in systemic necrotizing vasculitis and lupus nephritis. How long? How much? Pediatr Nephrol 2004;19:949-55.
23. Tisdale JF, Dunn DE, Maciejewski J. Cyclophosphamide and other new agents for the treatment of severe aplastic anemia. Semin Hematol 2000;37:102-9.
24. Colvin OM. An overview of cyclophosphamide development and clinical applications. Curr Pharm Des 1999;5:555-60.
25. Boddy AV, Yule SM. Metabolism and pharmacokinetics of oxazaphosphorines. Clin Pharmacokinet 2000;38:291-304.
26. Nichols CR. The role of ifosfamide in germ cell tumors and small cell lung cancer. Semin Oncol 1995;22(3 Suppl 7):13-7.
27. Buda A, Dell'Anna T, Signorelli M, Mangioni C. Role of ifosfamide in cervical cancer: an overview. Oncology 2003;65(Suppl 2):63-6.
28. Carli M, Passone E, Perilongo G, Bisogno G. Ifosfamide in pediatric solid tumors. Oncology 2003;65(Suppl 2):99-104.
29. Hagemeister FB. The role of ifosfamide in the treatment of lymphomas. Leuk Lymphoma 1999;34:433-41.
30. Chang AY. Ifosfamide: let's not end the honeymoon too soon. J Clin Oncol 1995;13:1824-6.
31. Roy P, Waxman DJ. Activation of oxazaphosphorines by cytochrome P450: application to gene-directed enzyme prodrug therapy for cancer. Toxicol In Vitro 2006;20:176-86.
32. Bramwell VH, Mouridsen HT, Santoro A, Blackledge G, Somers R, Verweij J, et al. Cyclophosphamide versus ifosfamide: final report of a randomized phase II trial in adult soft tissue sarcomas. Eur J Cancer Clin Oncol 1987;23:311-21.
33. Fraiser LH, Kanekal S, Kehrer JP. Cyclophosphamide toxicity. Characterising and avoiding the problem. Drugs 1991;42:781-95.
34. Peters WP, Stuart A, Klotman M, Gilbert C, Jones RB, Shpall EJ, et al. High-dose combination cyclophosphamide, cisplatin, and melphalan with autologous bone marrow support. A clinical and pharmacologic study. Cancer Chemother Pharmacol 1989;23:377-83.
35. Cooper JA Jr, White DA, Matthay RA. Drug-induced pulmonary disease. Part 1: Cytotoxic drugs. Am Rev Respir Dis 1986;133:321-40.
36. Klastersky J. Side effects of ifosfamide. Oncology 2003;65(Suppl 2):7-10.
37. Hoffman GS, Kerr GS, Leavitt RY, Hallahan CW, Lebovics RS, Travis WD, et al. Wegener granulomatosis: an analysis of 158 patients. Ann Intern Med 1992;116:488-98.
38. Radis CD, Kahl LE, Baker GL, Wasko MC, Cash JM, Gallatin A, et al. Effects of cyclophosphamide on the development of malignancy and on long-term survival of patients with rheumatoid arthritis. A 20-year follow-up study. Arthritis Rheum 1995;38:1120-7.
39. Relander T, Cavallin-Stahl E, Garwicz S, Olsson AM, Willen M. Gonadal and sexual function in men treated for childhood cancer. Med Pediatr Oncol 2000;35:52-63.
40. Ahmed AR, Hombal SM. Cyclophosphamide (Cytoxan). A review on relevant pharmacology and clinical uses. J Am Acad Dermatol 1984;11:1115-26.
41. Coggins PR, Raydin RG, Fisman SH. Clinical pharmacology and preliminary evaluation of Cytoxan (cyclophosphamide). Cancer Chemother Rep 1959;3:9-11.
42. Fernandes ET, Mannivel JC, Reddy PK, Ercole CJ. Cyclophosphamide associated bladder cancer - a highly aggressive disease: analysis of 12 cases. J Urol 1996;156:1931-3.
43. Fairchild WV, Spence CR, Solomon HD, Gangai MP. The incidence of bladder cancer after cyclophosphamide therapy. J Urol 1979;122:163-4.
44. Efros M, Ahmed T, Choudhury M. Cyclophosphamide-induced hemorrhagic pyelitis and ureteritis associated with cystitis in marrow transplantation. J Urol 1990;144:1231-2.
45. Brenner DW, Schellhammer PF. Upper tract urothelial malignancy after cyclophosphamide therapy: a case report and literature review. J Urol 1987;137:1226-7.
46. Wall RL, Clausen KP. Carcinoma of the urinary bladder in patients receiving cyclophosphamide. N Engl J Med 1975;293:271-3.
47. Tanguay C, Harvey I, Houde M, Srigley JR, Tetu B. Leiomyosarcoma of urinary bladder following cyclophosphamide therapy: report of two cases. Mod Pathol 2003;16:512-4.
48. Al-Zahrani AA, Kamal BA, Eldarawani HM, Hashim TM. Leiomyosarcoma of the bladder in a 16-year-old girl with a history of cyclophosphamide therapy for bilateral retinoblastoma during infancy. Saudi Med J 2006;27:531-3.
49. Brucker B, Ernst L, Meadows A, Zderic S. A second leiomyosarcoma in the urinary bladder of a child with a history of retinoblastoma 12 years following partial cystectomy. Pediatr Blood Cancer 2006;46:811-4.
50. deVries CR, Freiha FS. Hemorrhagic cystitis: a review. J Urol 1990;143:1-9.
51. Haselberger MB, Schwinghammer TL. Efficacy of mesna for prevention of hemorrhagic cystitis after high-dose cyclophosphamide therapy. Ann Pharmacother 1995;29:918-21.
52. Leung AYH, Mak R, Lie AK, Yeun KY, Cheng VC, Liang R, et al. Clinicopathological features and risk factors of clinically overt haemorrhagic cystitis complicating bone marrow transplantation. Bone Marrow Transplant 2002;29:509-13.
53. Shepherd JD, Pringle LE, Barnett MJ, Klingemann HG, Reece DE, Phillips JL. Mesna versus hyperhydration for the prevention of cyclophosphamide-induced hemorrhagic cystitis in bone marrow transplantation. J Clin Oncol 1991;9:2016-20.
54. Vose JM, Reed EC, Pippert JC, Anderson JR, Bierman PJ, Kessinger A, et al. Mesna compared with continuous bladder irrigation as uroprotection during high-dose chemotherapy and transplantation: a randomized trial. J Clin Oncol 1993;11:1306-10.
55. Droller MJ, Saral R, Santos G. Prevention of cyclophosphamide-induced hemorrhagic cystitis. Urology 1982;20:256-8.
56. Bedi A, Miller CB, Hanson JL, Goodman S, Ambinder RF, Charache P, et al. Association of BK virus with failure of prophylaxis against hemorrhagic cystitis following bone marrow transplantation. J Clin Oncol 1995;13:1103-9.
57. Arthur RR, Shah KV, Baust SJ, Santos GW, Saral R. Association of BK viruria with hemorrhagic cystitis in recipients of bone marrow transplants. N Engl J Med 1986;315:230-4.
58. Azzi A, Cesaro S, Laszlo D, Kakrzewska K, Ciappi S, De Santis R, et al. Human polyomavirus BK (BKV) load and haemorrhagic cystitis in bone marrow transplantation patients. J Clin Virol 1999;14:79-86.
59. Reploeg MD, Storch GA, Clifford DB. BK virus: a clinical review. Clin Infect Dis 2001;33:191-202.
60. Leung AY, Suen CK, Lie AK, Liang RH, Yuen KY, Kwong YL. Quantification of polyoma BK viruria in hemorrhagic cystitis complicating bone marrow transplantation. Blood 2001;98:1971-8.
61. Seabra C, Perez-Simon JA, Sierra M, Marcos JM, Caballero MD, de la Loma A, et al. Intra-muscular vidarabine therapy for polyomavirus-associated hemorrhagic cystitis following allogeneic hemopoietic stem cell transplantation. Bone Marrow Transplant 2000;26:1229-30.
62. Stillwell TJ, Benson RC Jr. Cyclophosphamide-induced hemorrhagic cystitis. A review of 100 patients. Cancer 1988;61:451-7.
63. Freedman A, Ehrlich RM, Ljung BM. Prevention of cyclophosphamide cystitis with 2-mercaptoethane sodium sulfonate: a histologic study. J Urol 1984;132:580-2.
64. Cox PJ. Cyclophosphamide cystitis-identification of acrolein as the causative agent. Biochem Pharmacol 1979;28:2045-9.
65. Shaw IC, Graham MI, McLean AE. 2-Chloroacetaldehyde: a metabolite of cyclophosphamide in the rat. Cancer Treat Rev 1983;10(Suppl A):17-24.
66. Korkmaz A, Oter S, Deveci S, Ozgurtas T, Topal T, Sadir S, Bilgic H. Involvement of nitric oxide and hyperbaric oxygen in the pathogenesis of cyclophosphamide induced hemorrhagic cystitis in rats. J Urol 2003;170:2498-502.
67. Sladek NE, Smith PC, Bratt PM, Low JE, Powers JF, Borch RF, Coveney JR. Influence of diuretics on urinary general base catalytic activity and cyclophosphamide-induced bladder toxicity. Cancer Treat Rep 1982;66:1889-900.
68. Takamoto S, Sakura N, Namera A, Yashiki M. Monitoring of urinary acrolein concentration in patients receiving cyclophosphamide and ifosphamide. J Chromatogr B 2004;806:59-63.
69. Kaye Z, Zipser R, Hahn J, Zia P, Horton R. Water diuresis is a major regulator of prostaglandin E excretion in man. Adv Prostaglandin Thromboxane Res 1980;7:1017-9.
70. Gray KJ, Engelmann UH, Johnson EH, Fishman IJ. Evaluation of misoprostol cytoprotection of the bladder with cyclophosphamide (Cytoxan) therapy. J Urol 1986;136:497-500.
71. Turkeri LN, Lum LG, Uberti JP, Abella E, Momin F, Karanes C, et al. Prevention of hemorrhagic cystitis following allogeneic bone marrow transplant preparative regimens with cyclophosphamide and busulfan: role of continuous bladder irrigation. J Urol 1995;153:637-40.
72. Atkinson K, Biggs JC, Golovsky D, Concannon A, Dodds A, Downs K, Ashby M. Bladder irrigation does not prevent haemorrhagic cystitis in bone marrow transplant recipients. Bone Marrow Transplant 1991;7:351-4.
73. Bradt EL, Griffin AC. Reduction of toxicity of nitrogen mustards by cysteine. Cancer 1951;4:1030-5.
74. Connors TA. Protection against the toxicity of alkylating agents by thiols: the mechanism of protection and its relevance to cancer chemotherapy. Eur J Cancer 1966;2:293-305.
75. Wagner T, Zink M, Schwieder G. Influence of mesna and cysteine on the systemic toxicity and therapeutic efficacy of activated cyclophosphamide. J Cancer Res Clin Oncol 1987;113:160-5.
76. Brock N, Pohl J, Stekar J. Detoxification of urotoxic oxazaphosphorines by sulfhydryl compounds. J Cancer Res Clin Oncol 1981;100:311-20.
77. Araujo CE, Tessler J. Treatment of ifosfamide-induced urothelial toxicity by oral administration of sodium 2-mercaptoethane sulphonate (MESNA) to patients with inoperable lung cancer. Eur J Cancer Clin Oncol 1983;19:195-201.
78. Schoenike SE, Dana WJ. Ifosfamide and mesna. Clin Pharm 1990;9:179-91.
79. Vieira MM, Brito GA, Belarmino-Filho JN, Macedo FY, Nery EA, Cunha FQ, Ribeiro RA. Use of dexamethasone with mesna for the prevention of ifosfamide-induced hemorrhagic cystitis. Int J Urol 2003;10:595-602.
80. Siu LL, Moore MJ. Use of mesna to prevent ifosfamide-induced urotoxicity. Support Care Cancer 1998;6:144-54.
81. Shaw IC, Graham MI. Mesna-a short review. Cancer Treat Rev 1987;14:67-86.
82. Mace JR, Keohan ML, Bernardy H, Junge K, Niebch G, Romeis P, et al. Crossover randomized comparison of intravenous versus intravenous/oral mesna in soft tissue sarcoma treated with high-dose ifosfamide. Clin Cancer Res 2003;9:5829-34.
83. Dechant KL, Brogden RN, Pilkington T, Faulds D. Ifosfamide/mesna. A review of its antineoplastic activity, pharmacokinetic properties and therapeutic efficacy in cancer. Drugs 1991;42:428-67.
84. Goren MP, McKenna LM, Goodman TL. Combined intravenous and oral mesna in outpatients treated with ifosfamide. Cancer Chemother Pharmacol 1997;40:371-5.
85. Markman M, Kennedy A, Webster K, Kulp B, Peterson G, Belinson J. Continuous subcutaneous administration of mesna to prevent ifosfamide-induced hemorrhagic cystitis. Semin Oncol 1996;23(3 Suppl 6):97-8.
86. Tsuboi K, Kishi K, Ohmachi K, Yasuda Y, Shimizu T, Inoue H, et al. Multivariate analysis of risk factors for hemorrhagic cystitis after hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Bone Marrow Transplant 2003;32:903-7.
87. Fukuoka M, Negoro S, Masuda N, Furuse K, Kawahara M, Kodama N, et al. Placebo-controlled double-blind comparative study on the preventive efficacy of mesna against ifosfamide-induced urinary disorders. J Cancer Res Clin Oncol 1991;117:473-8.
88. Scheulen ME, Niederle N, Bremer K, Schutte J, Seeber S. Efficacy of ifosfamide in refractory malignant diseases and uroprotection by mesna: results of a clinical phase II-study with 151 patients. Cancer Treat Rev 1983;10(Suppl A):93-101.
89. Scheef W, Klein HO, Brock N, Bukert H, Gunther U, Hoefer-Janker H, et al. Controlled clinical studies with an antidote against the urotoxicity of oxazaphosphorines: preliminary results. Cancer Treat Rep 1979;63:501-5.
90. Hows JM, Mehta A, Ward L, Woods K, Perez R, Gordon MY, Gordon-Smith EC. Comparison of mesna with forced diuresis to prevent cyclophosphamide induced haemorrhagic cystitis in marrow transplantation: a prospective randomised study. Br J Cancer 1984;50:753-6.
91. Kopterides P, Theodorakopoulou M, Mentzelopoulos S, Armaganidis A. Cyclophosphamide-induced hemorrhagic cystitis successfully treated with conjugated estrogens. Am J Hematol 2005;80:166-7.
92. Aleksa K, Ito S, Koren G. Renal-tubule metabolism of ifosfamide to the nephrotoxic chloroacetaldehyde: pharmacokinetic modeling for estimation of intracellular levels. J Lab Clin Med 2004;143:159-62.
93. Zaki EL, Springate JE, Taub M. Comparative toxicity of ifosfamide metabolites and protective effect of mesna and amifostine in cultured renal tubule cells. Toxicol In Vitro 2003;17:397-402.
94. Zielinska E, Zubowska M, Misiura K. Role of GSTM1, GSTP1, and GSTT1 gene polymorphism in ifosfamide metabolism affecting neurotoxicity and nephrotoxicity in children. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 2005;27:582-9.
95. Skinner R, Cotterill SJ, Stevens MC. Risk factors for nephrotoxicity after ifosfamide treatment in children: a UKCCSG Late Effects Group study. United Kingdom Children's Cancer Study Group. Br J Cancer 2000;82:1636-45.
96. Woodland C, Ito S, Granvil CP, Wainer IW, Klein J, Coren G. Evidence of renal metabolism of ifosfamide to nephrotoxic metabolites. Life Sci 2000;68:109-17.
97. Skinner R, Sharkey IM, Pearson AD, Craft AW. Ifosfamide, mesna, and nephrotoxicity in children. J Clin Oncol 1993;11:173-90.
98. Aleksa K, Woodland C, Koren G. Young age and the risk for ifosfamide-induced nephrotoxicity: a critical review of two opposing studies. Pediatr Nephrol 2001;16:1153-8.
99. Aleksa K, Halachmi N, Ito S, Koren G. Renal ontogeny of ifosfamide nephrotoxicity. J Lab Clin Med 2004;144:285-93.
100. Skinner R. Chronic ifosfamide nephrotoxicity in children. Med Pediatr Oncol 2003;41:190-7.
101. Nissim I, Horyn O, Daikhin Y, Nissim I, Luhovyy B, Phillips PC, Yudkoff M. Ifosfamide-induced nephrotoxicity: mechanism and prevention. Cancer Res 2006;66:7824-31.
102. Worth PH. Cyclophosphamide and the bladder. BMJ 1971;iii:182.
103. McDougal WS, Cramer SF, Miller R. Invasive carcinoma of the renal pelvis following cyclophosphamide therapy for nonmalignant disease. Cancer 1981;48:691-5.
104. Probert JL, Persad RA, Greenwood RP, Gillatt DA, Smith PJ. Epidemiology of transitional cell carcinoma of the bladder: profile of an urban population in the south-west of England. Br J Urol 1998;82:660-6.
105. Cox R, Goorha S, Irving CC. Inhibition of DNA methylase activity by acrolein. Carcinogenesis 1988;9:463-5.
106. Cohen SM. Urinary bladder carcinogenesis. Toxicol Pathol 1998;26:121-7.
107. Cohen SM, Garland EM, John MSt, Okamura T, Smith RA. Acrolein initiates rat urinary bladder carcinogenesis. Cancer Res 1992;52:3577-81.
108. Drake MJ, Nixon PM, Crew JP. Drug-induced bladder and urinary disorders. Incidence, prevention and management. Drug Saf 1998;19:45-55.
109. Pedersen-Bjergaard J, Ersboll J, Hansen VL, Sorensen BL, Christoffersen K, Hou-Jensen K, et al. Carcinoma of the urinary bladder after treatment with cyclophosphamide for non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. N Engl J Med 1988;318:1028-32.
110. Travis LB, Curtis RE, Glimelius B, Holowaty EJ, Van Leeuwen FE, Lynch CF, et al. Bladder and kidney cancer following cyclophosphamide therapy for non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. J Natl Cancer Inst 1995;87:524-30.
111. Talar-Williams C, Hijazi YM, Walther MM, Linehan WM, Hallahan CW, et al. Cyclophosphamide-induced cystitis and bladder cancer in patients with Wegener granulomatosis. Ann Intern Med 1996;124:477-84.
112. Knight A, Askling J, Granath F, Sparen P, Ekborn A. Urinary bladder cancer in Wegener's granulomatosis: risks and relation to cyclophosphamide. Ann Rheum Dis 2004;63:1307-11.