Pelvic Floor Anatomy and Applied Physiology

Gastroenterology Clinics of North America

Volumn 37, Issue 3, 2008, Pages 493-509

  Raizada, Varuna ^a   Mittal, Ravinder K ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

External anal canal; Function; Internal anal canal; Levator ani

Indexed keywords

ANATOMICAL VARIATION; ANUS SPHINCTER; BODY REGIONS; CONSTIPATION; FECES INCONTINENCE; GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT; GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT FUNCTION; HIRSCHSPRUNG DISEASE; HUMAN; INTESTINE INNERVATION; LYMPH VESSEL; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; PELVIC ORGAN PROLAPSE; PELVIS FLOOR; REVIEW; SENSORY SYSTEM; UROGENITAL SYSTEM;

ANAL CANAL; DIAGNOSTIC IMAGING; FEMALE; HUMANS; PELVIC FLOOR; RECTAL DISEASES; VAGINA;

EID: 51549114643     PISSN: 08898553     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.gtc.2008.06.003     Document Type: Review

References (57)

1. Fritsch H., Brenner E., Lienemann A., et al. Anal sphincter complex: reinterpreted morphology and its clinical relevance. Dis Colon Rectum 45 2 (2002) 188-194
2. Fritsch H., Aigner F., Ludwikowski B., et al. Epithelial and muscular regionalization of the human developing anorectum. Anat Rec (Hoboken) 290 11 (2007) 1449-1458
3. Dyck P.J., and Thomas P.K. Autonomic and somatic systems to the anorectum and pelvic floor. 4th edition (2005), Elsevier Saunders, Philadelphia
4. Rattan S. The internal anal sphincter: regulation of smooth muscle tone and relaxation. Neurogastroenterol Motil 17 Suppl 1 (2005) 50-59
5. Goyal R.K., and Hirano I. The enteric nervous system. N Engl J Med 334 (1996) 1106-1115
6. Santorini J. Septemdecim tabulae; 1715.
7. Bogduk N. Issues in anatomy: the external anal sphincter revisited. Aust N Z J Surg 66 (1996) 626-629
8. Ayoub S.F. Anatomy of the external anal sphincter in man. Acta Anat (Basel) 105 (1979) 25-36
9. Shafik A. A new concept of the anatomy of the anal sphincter mechanism and the physiology of defecation. The external anal sphincter: a triple-loop system. Invest Urol 12 (1975) 412-419
10. Peschers U.M., DeLancey J.O., Fritsch H., et al. Cross-sectional imaging anatomy of the anal sphincters. Obstet Gynecol 90 5 (1997) 839-844
11. Bharucha A.E. Pelvic floor: anatomy and function. Neurogastroenterol Motil 18 7 (2006) 507-519
12. Stoker J., Halligan S., and Bartram C.I. Pelvic floor imaging. Radiology 218 (2001) 621-641
13. Taylor B.M., Beart Jr. R.W., and Phillips S.F. Longitudinal and radial variations of pressure in the human anal sphincter. Gastroenterology 86 (1984) 693-697
14. Vesalius A. De humnai corporis fabrica libri septum. 2nd edition; 1555.
15. Von Behr A. Handbook of human anatomy (1847), Lindsay & Blakiston, Philadelphia
16. Meyer G. Lehrbuch der Anatomie des Menschem; 1861.
17. Holl M. Handbuch des anatomie (1897), Fischer, Jena (Germany) [in German]
18. Thompson P. The myology of the pelvic floor (1899), McCorquoddale, Newton (MA)
19. Sappey P. Traite d, Anatomie Descriptive. 2nd edition; 1739.
20. Lawson J.O. Pelvic anatomy. I. Pelvic floor muscles. Ann R Coll Surg Engl 54 (1974) 244-252
21. DeLancey J.O., and Delmas V. Groos anatomy and functional anatomy of the pelvic floor (2004), Elsevier Saunders, Philadelphia
22. Kearney R., Sawhney R., and DeLancey J.O. Levator ani muscle anatomy evaluated by origin-insertion pairs. Obstet Gynecol 104 (2004) 168-173
23. Percy J.P., Neill M.E., Swash M., et al. Electrophysiological study of motor nerve supply of pelvic floor. Lancet 1 (1981) 16-17
24. Guaderrama N.M., Liu J., Nager C.W., et al. Evidence for the innervation of pelvic floor muscles by the pudendal nerve. Obstet Gynecol 106 (2005) 774-781
25. Li D., and Guo M. Morphology of the levator ani muscle. Dis Colon Rectum 50 (2007) 1831-1839
26. Hoyte L., Jakab M., Warfield S.K., et al. Levator ani thickness variations in symptomatic and asymptomatic women using magnetic resonance-based 3-dimensional color mapping. Am J Obstet Gynecol 191 (2004) 856-861
27. Fletcher J.G., Busse R.F., Riederer S.J., et al. Magnetic resonance imaging of anatomic and dynamic defects of the pelvic floor in defecatory disorders. Am J Gastroenterol 98 (2003) 399-411
28. Bharucha A.E., Fletcher J.G., Harper C.M., et al. Relationship between symptoms and disordered continence mechanisms in women with idiopathic faecal incontinence. Gut 54 (2005) 546-555
29. Bharucha A.E., and Fletcher J.G. Recent advances in assessing anorectal structure and functions. Gastroenterology 133 (2007) 1069-1074
30. Dietz H.P. Ultrasound imaging of the pelvic floor. Part II: three-dimensional or volume imaging. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol 23 (2004) 615-625
31. Dietz H.P. Ultrasound imaging of the pelvic floor. Part I: two-dimensional aspects. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol 23 (2004) 80-92
32. Dietz H.P., Shek C., and Clarke B. Biometry of the pubovisceral muscle and levator hiatus by three-dimensional pelvic floor ultrasound. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol 25 (2005) 580-585
33. Jung S.A., Pretorius D.H., Weinstein M., et al. Closure mechanism of the anal canal in women: assessed by three-dimensional ultrasound imaging. Dis Colon Rectum 51 (2008) 932-939
34. Jung S.A., Pretorius D.H., Padda B.S., et al. Vaginal high-pressure zone assessed by dynamic 3-dimensional ultrasound images of the pelvic floor. Am J Obstet Gynecol 197 (2007) 52 e51-52 e57
35. Weinstein MM, Pretorius DH, Jung S-A, et-al. Transcutaneous 3-dimensional ultrasound imaging: a novel technique to detect anatomical defects in the muscles of anal sphincter complex. Clinical Gastroenterology and Hepatology, in press.
36. Guo M., and Li D. Pelvic floor images: anatomy of the levator ani muscle. Dis Colon Rectum 50 (2007) 1647-1655
37. Hjartardottir S., Nilsson J., Petersen C., et al. The female pelvic floor: a dome-not a basin. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 76 (1997) 567-571
38. Bo K., Lilleas F., Talseth T., et al. Dynamic MRI of the pelvic floor muscles in an upright sitting position. Neurourol Urodyn 20 (2001) 167-174
39. Singh K., Jakab M., Reid W.M., et al. Three-dimensional magnetic resonance imaging assessment of levator ani morphologic features in different grades of prolapse. Am J Obstet Gynecol 188 (2003) 910-915
40. Bharucha A.E., Fletcher J.G., Seide B., et al. Phenotypic variation in functional disorders of defecation. Gastroenterology 128 (2005) 1199-1210
41. Locke III G.R., Pemberton J.H., and Phillips S.F. AGA technical review on constipation. American Gastroenterological Association. Gastroenterology 119 (2000) 1766-1778
42. Shorvon P.J., McHugh S., Diamant N.E., et al. Defecography in normal volunteers: results and implications. Gut 30 (1989) 1737-1749
43. Liu J., Guaderrama N., Nager C.W., et al. Functional correlates of anal canal anatomy: puborectalis muscle and anal canal pressure. Am J Gastroenterol 101 (2006) 1092-1097
44. Duthie H.L., and Watts J.M. Contribution of the external anal sphincter to the pressure zone in the anal canal. Gut 6 (1965) 64-68
45. Guaderrama N.M., Nager C.W., Liu J., et al. The vaginal pressure profile. Neurourol Urodyn 24 (2005) 243-247
46. Weinstein M.M., Jung S.A., Pretorius D.H., et al. The reliability of puborectalis muscle measurements with 3-dimensional ultrasound imaging. Am J Obstet Gynecol 197 (2007) 68 e61-68 e66
47. Padda B.S., Jung S.A., Pretorius D., et al. Effects of pelvic floor muscle contraction on anal canal pressure. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 292 (2007) G565-G571
48. Read N.W., Haynes W.G., Bartolo D.C., et al. Use of anorectal manometry during rectal infusion of saline to investigate sphincter function in incontinent patients. Gastroenterology 85 (1983) 105-113
49. Sun W.M., Read N.W., and Donnelly T.C. Impaired internal anal sphincter in a subgroup of patients with idiopathic fecal incontinence. Gastroenterology 97 (1989) 130-135
50. Sultan A.H., Kamm M.A., Hudson C.N., et al. Anal-sphincter disruption during vaginal delivery. 23. N Engl J Med 329 (1993) 1905-1911
51. Fernandez-Fraga X., Azpiroz F., and Malagelada J.R. Significance of pelvic floor muscles in anal incontinence. Gastroenterology 123 (2002) 1441-1450
52. DeLancey J.O., Kearney R., Chou Q., et al. The appearance of levator ani muscle abnormalities in magnetic resonance images after vaginal delivery. Obstet Gynecol 101 (2003) 46-53
53. Dietz H.P., and Lanzarone V. Levator trauma after vaginal delivery. Obstet Gynecol 106 (2005) 707-712
54. Chiarioni G., Whitehead W.E., Pezza V., et al. Biofeedback is superior to laxatives for normal transit constipation due to pelvic floor dyssynergia. Gastroenterology 130 (2006) 657-664
55. Olsen A.L., and Rao S.S. Clinical neurophysiology and electrodiagnostic testing of the pelvic floor. Gastroenterol Clin North Am 30 (2001) 33-54 v-vi
56. Preston D.M., and Lennard-Jones J.E. Anismus in chronic constipation. Dig Dis Sci 30 (1985) 413-418
57. Chiarioni G., Salandini L., and Whitehead W.E. Biofeedback benefits only patients with outlet dysfunction, not patients with isolated slow transit constipation. Gastroenterology 129 (2005) 86-97