Determinants of terrorism in the Muslim world: An empirical cross-sectional analysis

Terrorism and Political Violence

Volumn 16, Issue 2, 2004, Pages 253-273

  Testas, Abdelaziz ^a  

^a Open Harbor   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 5044227260     PISSN: 09546553     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/09546550490482504     Document Type: Article

References (54)

1. Alan B. Krueger and Jikta Maleckova, 'Education, Poverty and Terrorism: Is There a Causal Connection?', Journal of Economic Perspectives 17/4 (2003) pp.119-44; Alan B. Krueger and Jikta Maleckova, 'Education, Poverty, Political Violence and Terrorism: Is There a Causal Connection?', National Bureau of Economic Research, Working Paper No. 9074 (2002).
2. Alan B. Krueger and Jikta Maleckova, 'Education, Poverty and Terrorism: Is There a Causal Connection?', Journal of Economic Perspectives 17/4 (2003) pp.119-44; Alan B. Krueger and Jikta Maleckova, 'Education, Poverty, Political Violence and Terrorism: Is There a Causal Connection?', National Bureau of Economic Research, Working Paper No. 9074 (2002).
3. Ibid. (2002) p.32.
4. I b i d.
5. M. D. Turetzky, 'Egypt, Mubarak and the Rise of Islamic Fundamentalist Terrorism, 1981-1994: An Empirical Analysis of the Mubarak Regime's Punitive Counter-Terrorist Policy', Michigan Journal of Political Science 24 (2003).
6. The data set we use for the 37 Muslim countries in our sample is reproduced in Brock S. Blomberg, Gregory D. Hess and Akila Weerapana, 'Terrorism From Within: An Economic Model of Terrorism', DIW Workshop on The Economic Consequences of Global Terrorism (Berlin: 2002); Brock S. Blomberg, Gregory D. Hess and Akila Weerapana, 'Economic Conditions and Terrorism' (Claremont, CA: Claremont McKenna College, mimeo, 2002). The original data in the ITERATE project, however, were put together by Edward F. Mickolus, Todd Sandler, Jean M. Murdock, and Peter Flemming (1993), International Terrorism: Attributes of Terrorist Events, 1968-1991 (ITERATE 4). Dunn Loring, VA: Vinyard Software.
7. The data set we use for the 37 Muslim countries in our sample is reproduced in Brock S. Blomberg, Gregory D. Hess and Akila Weerapana, 'Terrorism From Within: An Economic Model of Terrorism', DIW Workshop on The Economic Consequences of Global Terrorism (Berlin: 2002); Brock S. Blomberg, Gregory D. Hess and Akila Weerapana, 'Economic Conditions and Terrorism' (Claremont, CA: Claremont McKenna College, mimeo, 2002). The original data in the ITERATE project, however, were put together by Edward F. Mickolus, Todd Sandler, Jean M. Murdock, and Peter Flemming (1993), International Terrorism: Attributes of Terrorist Events, 1968-1991 (ITERATE 4). Dunn Loring, VA: Vinyard Software.
8. The data set we use for the 37 Muslim countries in our sample is reproduced in Brock S. Blomberg, Gregory D. Hess and Akila Weerapana, 'Terrorism From Within: An Economic Model of Terrorism', DIW Workshop on The Economic Consequences of Global Terrorism (Berlin: 2002); Brock S. Blomberg, Gregory D. Hess and Akila Weerapana, 'Economic Conditions and Terrorism' (Claremont, CA: Claremont McKenna College, mimeo, 2002). The original data in the ITERATE project, however, were put together by Edward F. Mickolus, Todd Sandler, Jean M. Murdock, and Peter Flemming (1993), International Terrorism: Attributes of Terrorist Events, 1968-1991 (ITERATE 4). Dunn Loring, VA: Vinyard Software.
9. We also experimented by the enrollment ratio in high school, but this did not generate superior results. In fact, our choice of the enrollment ratio in university can be justified by Krueger and Maleckova's assumption that the relationship between education and terrorism is a function of participation in politics. As one may expect, university students are far more likely to be drawn into politics than high school students.
10. Penn World Tables, 〈http://datacentre2.chass.utoronto.ca/pwt/〉
11. Blomberg et al (note 5).
12. Freedom House, Freedom in the World: Annual Survey of Freedom Country Scores 1972-73 to 1999-2000 (New York: Freedom House 2002).
13. The rational notion of terrorists dates back to Todd Sandier, John Tschirhart, and Jon Cauley, 'A Theoretical Analysis of Transnational Terrorism', American Political Science Review 77/1 (1983) pp.36-54.
14. Bruno S. Frey and Simon Luechinger, 'Terrorism: Deterrence May Backfire' (Zurich University, Institute for Empirical Research in Economics, Working Paper No. 136, 2002); Bruno S. Frey and Simon Luechinger, 'How to Fight Terrorism: Alternatives to Deterrence' (Zurich University, Institute for Empirical Research in Economics, Working Paper No. 137, 2002)
15. Bruno S. Frey and Simon Luechinger, 'Terrorism: Deterrence May Backfire' (Zurich University, Institute for Empirical Research in Economics, Working Paper No. 136, 2002); Bruno S. Frey and Simon Luechinger, 'How to Fight Terrorism: Alternatives to Deterrence' (Zurich University, Institute for Empirical Research in Economics, Working Paper No. 137, 2002)
16. Ibid Terrorism: Deterrence May Backfire' p.7.
17. Edward Muller and Karl-Dieter Opp, 'Rational Choice and Rebellious Collective Action', American Political Science Review 80 (1986) pp.471-88.
18. Jurgen Brauer, 'On the Economics of Terrorism', Augusta, GA: Augusta State University, mimeo (2002).
19. Blomberg et al. (note 5).
20. Norwegian Institute of International Affairs, 'Root Causes of Terrorism: Findings from an International Expert Meeting in Oslo, 9-11 June 2003' 〈http://www.end-terror.org/background/OsloConference.htm〉
21. Developmental dictatorship is a model that relies on relatively good economic performance to persuade the population to postpone its protests in demand for political freedom.
22. Turetzky (note 4).
23. Robert MacCulloch and Silvia Pezzini, 'The Role of Freedom, Growth and Religion in the Taste for Revolution', Princeton University, mimeo (2002).
24. See, for example, Paul Collier, Economic Causes of Civil Conflict and their Implications for Policy (Washington, DC: World Bank 2000); Paul Collier, 'On the Economic Consequences of Civil War', Oxford Economic Papers 51 (1999) pp.168-83; Paul Collier and Anke Hoeffler, Justice-Seeking and Loot-Seeking in CivilWar (Washington DC: World Bank 1999); Ibrahim Elbadawi, Civil Wars and Poverty: The Role of External Interventions, Political Rights and Economic Growth (Washington DC: World Bank 1999).
25. See, for example, Paul Collier, Economic Causes of Civil Conflict and their Implications for Policy (Washington, DC: World Bank 2000); Paul Collier, 'On the Economic Consequences of Civil War', Oxford Economic Papers 51 (1999) pp.168-83; Paul Collier and Anke Hoeffler, Justice-Seeking and Loot-Seeking in CivilWar (Washington DC: World Bank 1999); Ibrahim Elbadawi, Civil Wars and Poverty: The Role of External Interventions, Political Rights and Economic Growth (Washington DC: World Bank 1999).
26. See, for example, Paul Collier, Economic Causes of Civil Conflict and their Implications for Policy (Washington, DC: World Bank 2000); Paul Collier, 'On the Economic Consequences of Civil War', Oxford Economic Papers 51 (1999) pp.168-83; Paul Collier and Anke Hoeffler, Justice-Seeking and Loot-Seeking in CivilWar (Washington DC: World Bank 1999); Ibrahim Elbadawi, Civil Wars and Poverty: The Role of External Interventions, Political Rights and Economic Growth (Washington DC: World Bank 1999).
27. See, for example, Paul Collier, Economic Causes of Civil Conflict and their Implications for Policy (Washington, DC: World Bank 2000); Paul Collier, 'On the Economic Consequences of Civil War', Oxford Economic Papers 51 (1999) pp.168-83; Paul Collier and Anke Hoeffler, Justice-Seeking and Loot-Seeking in CivilWar (Washington DC: World Bank 1999); Ibrahim Elbadawi, Civil Wars and Poverty: The Role of External Interventions, Political Rights and Economic Growth (Washington DC: World Bank 1999).
28. Data on countries experiencing civil war come from Collier and Hoeffler (Justice-Seeking and Loot-Seeking in Civil War, ibid.) and Ibrahim Elbadawi, Reviving Growth in the Arab World (Washington DC: World Bank 2002).
29. These conclusions regarding the Islamic attitude towards scientific education is based on the present author's own observations from Algeria's experience. There is, therefore, a need for detailed studies comparing the attitudes in other Muslim countries.
30. For empirical results and literature review, see Ranveig Gissinger and Nils Petter Gleditsch, 'Globalization and Conflict: Welfare, Distribution, and Political Unrest', Journal of World-Systems Research 5/2 (1999) pp.327-65.
31. Seymour Martin Lipset, 'Some Social Requisites of Democracy: Economic Development and Political Legitimacy', American Political Science Review 53 (1954) p.56.
32. Gissinger and Gleditsch (note 23).
33. Ross E. Burkhart et al, 'Comparative Democracy: The Economic Development Thesis', American Political Science Review 88/4 (1994), pp.903-10; Samuel P. Huntington, The Third Wave (Oklahoma and London: University of Oklahoma Press 1991); Edward Muller, 'Income Inequality, Regime Repressiveness, and Political Violence', American Sociological Review 50/1 (1985) pp.47-61; Edward Muller, 'Economic Determinants of Democracy', American Sociological Review 60/6 (1995), pp.966-82; Edward Muller, 'Income Inequality and Democratization: Reply to Bollen and Jackman', American Sociological Review 60/6 (1995) pp.991-6.
34. Ross E. Burkhart et al, 'Comparative Democracy: The Economic Development Thesis', American Political Science Review 88/4 (1994), pp.903-10; Samuel P. Huntington, The Third Wave (Oklahoma and London: University of Oklahoma Press 1991); Edward Muller, 'Income Inequality, Regime Repressiveness, and Political Violence', American Sociological Review 50/1 (1985) pp.47-61; Edward Muller, 'Economic Determinants of Democracy', American Sociological Review 60/6 (1995), pp.966-82; Edward Muller, 'Income Inequality and Democratization: Reply to Bollen and Jackman', American Sociological Review 60/6 (1995) pp.991-6.
35. Ross E. Burkhart et al, 'Comparative Democracy: The Economic Development Thesis', American Political Science Review 88/4 (1994), pp.903-10; Samuel P. Huntington, The Third Wave (Oklahoma and London: University of Oklahoma Press 1991); Edward Muller, 'Income Inequality, Regime Repressiveness, and Political Violence', American Sociological Review 50/1 (1985) pp.47-61; Edward Muller, 'Economic Determinants of Democracy', American Sociological Review 60/6 (1995), pp.966-82; Edward Muller, 'Income Inequality and Democratization: Reply to Bollen and Jackman', American Sociological Review 60/6 (1995) pp.991-6.
36. Ross E. Burkhart et al, 'Comparative Democracy: The Economic Development Thesis', American Political Science Review 88/4 (1994), pp.903-10; Samuel P. Huntington, The Third Wave (Oklahoma and London: University of Oklahoma Press 1991); Edward Muller, 'Income Inequality, Regime Repressiveness, and Political Violence', American Sociological Review 50/1 (1985) pp.47-61; Edward Muller, 'Economic Determinants of Democracy', American Sociological Review 60/6 (1995), pp.966-82; Edward Muller, 'Income Inequality and Democratization: Reply to Bollen and Jackman', American Sociological Review 60/6 (1995) pp.991-6.
37. Ross E. Burkhart et al, 'Comparative Democracy: The Economic Development Thesis', American Political Science Review 88/4 (1994), pp.903-10; Samuel P. Huntington, The Third Wave (Oklahoma and London: University of Oklahoma Press 1991); Edward Muller, 'Income Inequality, Regime Repressiveness, and Political Violence', American Sociological Review 50/1 (1985) pp.47-61; Edward Muller, 'Economic Determinants of Democracy', American Sociological Review 60/6 (1995), pp.966-82; Edward Muller, 'Income Inequality and Democratization: Reply to Bollen and Jackman', American Sociological Review 60/6 (1995) pp.991-6.
38. Adam Przeworski, 'Democracy as an Equilibrium', workshop on The Economics of Political Violence (Princeton University, 18-19 March 2001); Adam Przeworski, 'What Makes Democracies Endure?', Journal of Democracy 7/1 (1996) pp.39-55.
39. Adam Przeworski, 'Democracy as an Equilibrium', workshop on The Economics of Political Violence (Princeton University, 18-19 March 2001); Adam Przeworski, 'What Makes Democracies Endure?', Journal of Democracy 7/1 (1996) pp.39-55.
40. Robert J. Barro, 'Democracy and Growth', National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper 4909 (1994).
41. John B. Londregan and Keith T. Poole, 'Does High Income Promote Democracy?', World Politics 49/1 (1996) pp. 1-30.
42. Gissinger and Gleditsch (note 23); see also Harry Eckstein and Ted Robert Gurr, Patterns of Authority: A Structural Basis for Political Inquiry (New York: John Wiley 1995); William H. Flanagan and Edwin Fogelman, 'Patterns of Political Science in Comparative Historical Perspective" Comparative Politics 3/1 (1971) pp. 1-20; Rudolph J. Rummel, 'Democracy, Power, Genocide, and Mass Murder', Journal of Conflict Resolution 39/1 (1995) pp.3-26.
43. Gissinger and Gleditsch (note 23); see also Harry Eckstein and Ted Robert Gurr, Patterns of Authority: A Structural Basis for Political Inquiry (New York: John Wiley 1995); William H. Flanagan and Edwin Fogelman, 'Patterns of Political Science in Comparative Historical Perspective" Comparative Politics 3/1 (1971) pp. 1-20; Rudolph J. Rummel, 'Democracy, Power, Genocide, and Mass Murder', Journal of Conflict Resolution 39/1 (1995) pp.3-26.
44. Gissinger and Gleditsch (note 23); see also Harry Eckstein and Ted Robert Gurr, Patterns of Authority: A Structural Basis for Political Inquiry (New York: John Wiley 1995); William H. Flanagan and Edwin Fogelman, 'Patterns of Political Science in Comparative Historical Perspective" Comparative Politics 3/1 (1971) pp. 1-20; Rudolph J. Rummel, 'Democracy, Power, Genocide, and Mass Murder', Journal of Conflict Resolution 39/1 (1995) pp.3-26.
45. Collier and Hoeffler, Justice-Seeking and Loot-Seeking in Civil War (note 20).
46. Gissinger and Gleditsch (note 23).
47. See, for example, Li Quan and Drew Schaub, 'Economic Globalization and Transnational Terrorism,' Journal of Conflict Resolution 48/2 (April 2004) pp.230-58; Leonard Weinberg and William Eubank, 'Terrorism and Democracy: Perpetrators and Victims', Terrorism and Political Violence 13/1 (Spring 2001) pp. 155-64; Leonard Weinberg and William Eubank, 'Terrorism and Democracy: What Recent Events Disclose', Terrorism and Political Violence 10/1 (Spring 1998) pp.108-18.
48. See, for example, Li Quan and Drew Schaub, 'Economic Globalization and Transnational Terrorism,' Journal of Conflict Resolution 48/2 (April 2004) pp.230-58; Leonard Weinberg and William Eubank, 'Terrorism and Democracy: Perpetrators and Victims', Terrorism and Political Violence 13/1 (Spring 2001) pp. 155-64; Leonard Weinberg and William Eubank, 'Terrorism and Democracy: What Recent Events Disclose', Terrorism and Political Violence 10/1 (Spring 1998) pp.108-18.
49. See, for example, Li Quan and Drew Schaub, 'Economic Globalization and Transnational Terrorism,' Journal of Conflict Resolution 48/2 (April 2004) pp.230-58; Leonard Weinberg and William Eubank, 'Terrorism and Democracy: Perpetrators and Victims', Terrorism and Political Violence 13/1 (Spring 2001) pp. 155-64; Leonard Weinberg and William Eubank, 'Terrorism and Democracy: What Recent Events Disclose', Terrorism and Political Violence 10/1 (Spring 1998) pp.108-18.
50. Jennifer L. Windsor, 'Promoting Democratization Can Combat Terrorism', Washington Quarterly 26/3 (2003) pp.43-58.
51. Havard Hegre, Tanja Ellingsen, Scott Gates and Nils P. Gleditsch, 'Toward a Democratic Civil Peace?: Democracy, Political Change and Civil War, 1816-1992', American Political Science Review 95/1 (2001) pp.33-48; Hegre, Havard Hegre, Tanja Ellingsen, Scott Gates and Nils P. Gleditsch, 'Towards Democratic Civil Peace?: Opportunity, Grievance and Civil War 1816-1992', Workshop on Civil Conflicts, Crime and Violence in Developing Countries (World Bank, 22-23 February 1999).
52. Havard Hegre, Tanja Ellingsen, Scott Gates and Nils P. Gleditsch, 'Toward a Democratic Civil Peace?: Democracy, Political Change and Civil War, 1816-1992', American Political Science Review 95/1 (2001) pp.33-48; Hegre, Havard Hegre, Tanja Ellingsen, Scott Gates and Nils P. Gleditsch, 'Towards Democratic Civil Peace?: Opportunity, Grievance and Civil War 1816-1992', Workshop on Civil Conflicts, Crime and Violence in Developing Countries (World Bank, 22-23 February 1999).
53. Collier and Hoeffler, Justice-Seeking and Loot-Seeking in Civil War (note 20).
54. Windsor (note 34, p.46).