Imaging neuroendocrine tumours with radionuclide techniques

Minerva Endocrinologica

Volumn 33, Issue 2, 2008, Pages 105-126

  Gnanasegaran, G ^a   O'Doherty, M J ^a  

^a GUY'S AND ST THOMAS' NHS FOUNDATION TRUST   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Diagnostic imaging; Neuroendocrine tumours; Radionuclide imaging; Radiopharmaceuticals

Indexed keywords

ADRENALIN; ALPHA FETOPROTEIN; CALCITONIN; CALCITONIN GENE RELATED PEPTIDE; CARCINOEMBRYONIC ANTIGEN; CHORIONIC GONADOTROPIN ALPHA SUBUNIT; CHORIONIC GONADOTROPIN BETA SUBUNIT; CHROMOGRANIN A; CORTICOTROPIN; DOPAMINE; FLUORODEOXYGLUCOSE F 18; GALLIUM 68; GASTRIC INHIBITORY POLYPEPTIDE; GASTRIN; GASTRIN RELEASING PEPTIDE; GLUCAGON; GROWTH HORMONE RELEASING FACTOR; NEURON SPECIFIC ENOLASE; NEUROPEPTIDE Y; NEUROTENSIN; NORADRENALIN; PENTETREOTIDE; PROLACTIN; PROOPIOMELANOCORTIN; RADIOISOTOPE; SEROTONIN; SOMATOSTATIN; SUCCIMER; SYNAPTOPHYSIN; DIAGNOSTIC AGENT; RADIOPHARMACEUTICAL AGENT;

CARCINOID; CARNEY COMPLEX; COMPUTER ASSISTED TOMOGRAPHY; HUMAN; MULTIPLE ENDOCRINE NEOPLASIA; NEUROBLASTOMA; NEUROENDOCRINE TUMOR; PANCREAS ISLET CELL TUMOR; PANCREATIC POLYPEPTIDE SECRETING CELL; PARAGANGLIOMA; PHEOCHROMOCYTOMA; POSITRON EMISSION TOMOGRAPHY; REVIEW; SINGLE PHOTON EMISSION COMPUTER TOMOGRAPHY; THYROID MEDULLARY CARCINOMA; VON HIPPEL LINDAU DISEASE; WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION; METHODOLOGY; SCINTISCANNING; SENSITIVITY AND SPECIFICITY;

HUMANS; NEUROENDOCRINE TUMORS; POSITRON-EMISSION TOMOGRAPHY; RADIOPHARMACEUTICALS; SENSITIVITY AND SPECIFICITY; TOMOGRAPHY, EMISSION-COMPUTED, SINGLE-PHOTON; TOMOGRAPHY, X-RAY COMPUTED;

EID: 49849086883     PISSN: 03911977     EISSN: 18271634     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (144)

1. Gilligan CJ, Lawton GP, Tang LH, West AB, Modlin IM. Gastric carcinoid tumors: the biology and therapy of an enigmatic and controversial lesion. Am J Gastroentrol 1995;90:338-53.
2. Moertel CG. An odyssey in the land of small tumors. J Clin Oncol 1987;5:1503-22.
3. Kaltas GA, Besser GM, Grossman AB. The Diagnosis and Medical Management of Advanced Neuroendocrine Tumors. Endocr Rev 2004;25:458-511.
4. Solcia E, Rindi G, Paolotti D, La Rosa S, Capella C, Fiocca R. Clinicopathological profile as a basis for classification of the endocrine tumours of the gastroenteropancreatic tract. Ann Oncol 1999;10(Suppl 2):S9-S15.
5. Klöppel G, Perren A, Heitz PU. The gastroenteropancreatic neuroendocrine cell system and its tumors: the WHO classification. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2004;1014:13-27.
6. Rindi G, Villanacci V, Ubiali A. Biological and molecular aspects of gastroenteropancreatic. Digestion 2000;62(Suppl 1):19-26.
7. Rindi G, Capella C, Solcia E. Introduction to a revised clinicopathological classification of neuroendocrine tumors of the gastroenteropancreatic tract. Q J Nucl Med 2000;44:13-21.
8. Ramage JK, Davies AH, Ardill J, Bax N, Caplin M, Grossman A et al. Guidelines for the management of gastroenteropancreatic neuroendocrine (including carcinoid) tumours. Gut 2005;54:1-16.
9. Ling H, Cybulla M, Schaefer O, Arnold C, Schories M, Neumann HP. When to look for Von Hippel-Lindau disease in gastroenteropancreatic neuroendocrine tumors? Neuroendocrinology 2004;80(Suppl 1):39-46.
10. Calender A, Vercherat C, Gaudray P, Chayvialle JA. Deregulation of genetic pathways in neuroendocrine tumors. Ann Oncol 2001;12 (Suppl 2):S3-S11.
11. Neumann HP, Hoegerle S, Manz T, Brenner K, Iliopoulos O. How many pathways to pheochromocytoma? Semin Nephrol 2002;22:89-99.
12. Calender A. Molecular genetics of neuroendocrine tumors. Digestion 2000;62(Suppl 1):3-18.
13. Barakat MT, Meeran K, Bloom SR. Neuroendocrine tumours endocrine-related. Cancer 2004;11;1-18.
14. Hemminki K, Li X. Incidence trends and risk factors of carcinoid tumors: a nationwide epidemiologic study from Sweden. Cancer 2001;92:2204-10.
15. Modlin IM, Lye KD, Kidd M. A 5-decade analysis of 13,715 carcinoid tumors. Cancer 2003;97:934-59.
16. Oberg K. Carcinoid tumors: molecular genetics, tumor biology, and update of diagnosis and treatment. Curr Opin Oncol 2002;14:38-45.
17. Couvelard A, Felce-Dachez M, Degott C. Histological classification of endocrine tumors of the pancreas. Gastroenterol Clin Biol 2003;27:S15-S9.
18. Akerstrom G, Hellman P, Hessman O, Osmak L. Management of midgut carcinoids. J Surg Oncol 2005;89:161-9.
19. Kloppel G, Heitz PU, Capella C, Solcia E. Pathology andnomenclature of human gastrointestinal neuroendocrine (carcinoid)tumors and related lesions. World J Surg 1996;20:132-41.
20. Nobels FR, Kwekkeboom DJ, Coopmans W, Schoenmakers CH, Lindemans J, De Herder WW et al. Chromogranin A as serum marker for neuroendocrine neoplasia: comparison with neuron-specific enolase and the subunit of glycoprotein hormones. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1997;82:2622-8.
21. Olsen JO, Pozderac RV, Hinkle G, Hill T, O'Dorisio TM, Schirmer WJ et al. EC somatostatin receptor imaging of neuroendocrine tumors with indium-111pentetreotide(Octreoscan). Semin Nucl Med 1995;25:251-61.
22. Lenders JW, Pacak K, Walther MM, Linehan WM, Mannelli M, Friberg P et al. Biochemical diagnosis of phaeochromocytoma: which test is best? JAMA 2002;287:1427-34.
23. Ilias I, Pacak K. Diagnosis and management of tumors of the adrenal medulla. Horm Metab Res 2005;37:717-21.
24. Eisenhofer G, Goldstein DS, Kopin IJ, Crout JR Phaeochromocytoma: rediscovery as a catecholaminemetabolizing tumor. Endocr Pathol 2003;14:193-211.
25. Eisenhofer G, Goldstein DS, Sullivan P, Csako G, Browers FM, Lai EW et al. Biochemical and clinical manifestations of dopamine-producing paragangliomas: utility of plasma methoxytyramine. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2005;90:2068-75.
26. Chrisoulidou A, Kaltsas G, Ilias L, Grossman AB. The diagnosis and management of malignant phaeochromocytoma and paraganglioma. Endocr Relat Cancer 2007;14:569-85.
27. Gnanasegaran G, Buscombe JR. Neuroendocrine Tumours. The role of Nuclear Medicine in Imaging Neuroendocrine Tumours. World J Nucl Med 2003;2:232-40.
28. Al-Nahhas A, Win Z, Szyszko T, Singh A, Nanni C, Fanti S et al. Gallium-68 PET: a new frontier in receptor cancer imaging. Anticancer Res 2007;27:4087-94.
29. Al-Nahhas A, Win Z, Szyszko T, Singh A, Khan S, Rubello D. What can gallium-68 PET add to receptor and molecular imaging? Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2007;34:1897-901.
30. 123I-Metaiodobenzylguanidine (MIBG) Scintigraphy-Procedures Guidelines for Tumour Imaging. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2003;30:132-9.
31. Bombardieri E, Aktolun C, Baum RP, Bishof-Delaloye A, Buscombe J, Chatal JF et al. 111In-pentetreotide scintigraphy: procedure guidelines for tumour imaging. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2003;30:140-7.
32. Bombardieri E, Aktolun C, Baum RP, Bishof-Delaloye A, Buscombe J, Chatal JF et al. FDG-PET - Procedures Guidelines For Tumour Imaging. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2003;30:115-24.
33. Arnold R, Simon B, Wied M. Treatment of neuroendocrine GEP tumours with somatostatin analogues. Digestion 2000;62(Suppl 1):84-91.
34. Arnold R Medical treatment of metastasizing carcinoid tumors. World J Surg 1996;20:203-7.
35. Benali N, Ferjoux G, Puente E, Buscail L, Susini C. Somatostatin receptors. Digestion 2000;62(Suppl 1):27-32.
36. Lamberts SW, van der Lely AJ, de Herder WW, Hofland LJ. Octreotide. N Engl J Med 1996;334:246-54.
37. Krenning EP, Bakker WH, Breeman WA, Koper JW, Kooij PP, Ausema L et al. Localisation of endocrine-related tumours with radio iodinated analogue of somatostatin. Lancet 1989;1:242-4.
38. Balon HR, Goldsmith SJ, Siegel BA, Silberstein EB, Krenning EP, Lang O et al. Procedure guideline for somatostatin receptor scintigraphy with (111)In-pentetreotide. J Nucl Med 2001;42:1134-8.
39. Reubi JC. Neuropeptide receptors in health and disease: the molecular basis for in vivo imaging. J Nucl Med 1995;36:1825-35.
40. Montravers F, Grahek D, Kerrou K, Ruszniewski P, de Beco V, Aide N. Can Fluorodihydroxyphenylalanine PET Replace Somatostatin Receptor Scintigraphy in Patients with Digestive Endocrine Tumors? J Nucl Med 2006;47:1455-62.
41. Reubi JC, Laissue J, Waser B, Horisberger U, Schaer JC. Expression of somatostatin receptors in normal, inflamed, and neoplastic human gastrointestinal tissues. Ann NY Acad Sci 1994;733:122-37.
42. Kaltsas G, Korbonits M, Heintz E, Mukherjee JJ, Jenkins PJ, Chew SL et al. Comparison of somatostatin analog and metaiodobenzylguanidine radionuclides in the diagnosis and localization of advanced neuroendocrine tumors. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2001;86:895-902.
43. Virgolini I, Traub T, Novotny C. Experience with indium-111 and yttrium-90-labeled somatostatin analogs. Current Pharmaceutical Design 2002;8:1781-807.
44. Eriksson B, Bergström M, Sundin A, Juhlin C, Orlefors H, Oberg K et al. The role of PET in localization of neuroendocrine and adrenocortical tumors. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2002;970:159-69.
45. Pearse AG. The APUD concept and hormone production. Clin Endocrinol Metab 1980;9:211-22.
46. Rufini V, Calcagni ML, Baum RP. Imaging of Neuroendocrine Tumors. Semin Nucl Med 2006;36:228-47.
47. Win Z, Al-Nahhas A, Rubello D, Gross MD. WIN Z Somatostatin receptor PET imaging with Gallium-68 labeled peptides. Q J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2007;51:244-50.
48. Wild D, Béhé M, Wicki A, Storch D, Waser B, Gotthardt M et al. [Lys40(Ahx-DTPA-111In)NH2]exendin-4, a very promising ligand for glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) receptor targeting. J Nucl Med 2006;47:2025-33.
49. Ganim RB, Norton JA. Recent advances in carcinoid pathogenesis, diagnosis and management. Surg Oncol 2000;9:173-9.
50. Caplin ME, Buscombe JR, Hilson AJ, Jones AL, Watkinson AF, Burroughs AK. Carcinoid tumour. Lancet 1998;352:799-805.
51. Kulke MH, Mayer RJ. Carcinoid tumors. N Engl J Med 1999;340:858-68.
52. Limper AH, Carpenter PC, Scheithauer B, Staats BA The Cushing syndrome induced by bronchial carcinoid tumors. Ann Intern Med 1992;117:209-14.
53. Tomassetti P, Migliori M, Lalli S, Campana D, Tomassetti V, Corinaldesi R. Epidemiology, clinical features and diagnosis of gastroenteropancreatic endocrine tumours. Ann Oncol 2001;12(Suppl 2):S95-S9.
54. Wiedenmann B, Jensen RT, Mignon M, Modlin CI, Skogseid B, Doherty G et al. Preoperative diagnosis and surgical management of neuroendocrine gastroenteropancreatic tumors: general recommendations by a consensus workshop. World J Surg 1998;22:309-18.
55. Grewal RK, Dadparvar S, Yu JQ, Babaria CJ, Cavanaugh T, Sherman M et al. Efficacy of Tc-99m depreotide scintigraphy in the evaluation of solitary pulmonary nodules. Cancer J 2002;8:400-4.
56. Naalsund A, Maublant J. The solitary pulmonary nodule - is it malignant or benign? Diagnostic performance of Tc-depreotide SPECT. Respiration 2006;73:634-41.
57. Halley A, Hugentobler A, Icard P, Porret E, Sobrio F, Lerochais JP et al. Efficiency of 18F-FDG and 99mTc-depreotide SPECT in the diagnosis of malignancy of solitary pulmonary nodules. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2005;32:1026-32.
58. Ferran N, Ricart Y, Lopez M, Martinez-Ballarin I, Roca M, Gámez C et al. Characterization of radiologically indeterminate lung lesions: 99mTc-depreotide SPECT versus 18F-FDG PET. Nucl Med Commun 2006;27:507-14.
59. Ricke J, Klose KJ, Mignon M, Oberg K, Wiedenmann B. Standardization of imaging in neuroendocrine tumours: results of a European delphi process. Eur J Radiol 2001;37:8-17.
60. Von Moll L, McEwan AJ, Shapiro B, Sisson JC, Gross MD, Lloyd R et al. Iodine-131 MIBG scintigraphy of neuroendocrine tumors other than pheochromocytoma and neuroblastoma. J Nucl Med 1987;28:979-88.
61. Hanson MW, Feldman JM, Blinder RA, Moore JO, Coleman RE. Carcinoid tumors: iodine-131 MIBG scintigraphy. Radiology 1989;172:699-703.
62. Troncone L, Rufini V. MIBG in diagnosis of neuroendocrine tumors. In: Ell PJ, Gambhir SS, editors. Nuclear Medicine in Clinical Diagnosis and Treatment. Vol. 1. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone; 2004. p. 83-95.
63. Nocaudie-Calzada M, Huglo D, Carnaille B, Proye C, Marchanddise X. Comparison of somatostatin analogue and metaiodobenzylguanidine scintigraphy for the detection of carcinoid tumours. Eur J Nucl Med 1996;23:1448-54.
64. Ramage JK, Williams R, Buxton-Thomas M. Imaging secondary neuroendocrine tumours of the liver: comparison of I123 metaidobenzylguanidine (MIBG) and In111-labelled octreotide (Octreoscan). Q J Med 1996;89:539-42.
65. Taal BG, Hoefnagel CA, Valdes Olmos RA, Boot H. Combined diagnostic imaging with 131I-metaidobenzylguanidine and 111In-pentetreotide in carcinoid tumours. Eur J Cancer 1996;32:1924-32.
66. Carnaille B, Nocaudie M, Pattou F, Huglo D, Deveaux M, Marchandise X et al. Scintiscans and carcinoid tumors. Surgery 1994;116:1118-22.
67. Quigley AM, Buscombe JR, Shah T, Gnanasegaran G, Roberts D, Caplin ME et al. Intertumoural variability in functional imaging within patients suffering from neuroendocrine tumours. An observational, cross-sectional study. Neuroendocrinology 2005;82:215-20.
68. Lebtahi R, Cadiot G, Delahaye N, Genin R, Daou D, Peker MC et al. Detection of bone metastases in patients with endocrine gastroenteropancreatic tumors: bone scintigraphy compared with somatostatin receptor scintigraphy. J Nucl Med 1999;40:1602-8.
69. Gibril F, Doppman JL, Reynolds JC, Chen CC, Sutliff VE, Yu F et al. Bone metastases in patients with gastrinomas: a prospective study of bone scanning, somatostatin receptor scintigraphy and magnetic resonance imaging in their detection, frequency, location and effect of their detection on management. J Clin Oncol 1998:16:1040-53.
70. Barton JC, Hirschowitz BI, Maton PN, Jensen RT. Bone metastases in malignant gastrinoma. Gastroenterology 1986:91:1179-85.
71. Krenning EP, Kwekkeboom DJ, Bakker WH, Breeman WA, Kooij PP, Oei HY et al. Somatostatin receptor scintigraphy with [111In-DTPA-D-Phe1]- and [123I-Tyr3]-octreotide: the Rotterdam experience with more than 1 000 patients. Eur J Nucl Med 1993;20:716-31.
72. Chiti A, Fanti S, Savelli G, Romeo A, Bellanova B, Rodari M et al. Comparison of somatostatin receptor imaging, computed tomography and ultrasound in the clinical management of neuroendocrine gastro-enteropancreatic tumours. Eur J Nucl Med 1998;25:1396-403.
73. Lebtahi R, Cadiot G, Sarda L, Daou D, Faraggi M, Petegnief Y et al. Clinical impact of somatostatin receptor scintigraphy in the management of patients with neuroendocrine gastroenteropancreatic tumors. J Nucl Med1997;38:853-8.
74. Kvols LK, Brown ML, O'Connor MK, Hung JC, Hayostek RJ, Reubi JC et al. Evaluation of a radiolabeled somatostatin analogue in the detection of carcinoids and Islet cell tumours. Radiology 1993;187:129-36.
75. Orlefors H, Sundin A, Garske U, Juhlin C, Oberg K, Skogseid B et al. Whole-body (11)C-5-hydroxytryptophan positron emission tomography as a universal imaging technique for neuroendocrine tumors: comparison with somatostatin receptor scintigraphy and computed tomography. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2005;90:3392-400.
76. Hofmann M, Maecke H, Börner R, Weckesser E, Schöffski P, Oei L et al. Biokinetics and imaging with the somatostatin receptor PET radioligand (68)Ga-DOTATOC: preliminary data. Eur J Nucl Med 2001;28:1751-7.
77. Kowalski J, Henze M, Schuhmacher J, Mäcke HR, Hofmann M, Haberkorn U. Evaluation of positron emission tomography imaging using [68Ga]-DOTA-D Phe(1)-Tyr(3)-Octreotide in comparison to [111In]-DTPAOC SPECT. First results in patients with neuroendocrine tumors. Mol Imaging Biol 2003;5:42-8.
78. Baum RP, Niesen A, Leonhardi J, Wortmann R, Müller D, Rösch F. Receptor PET/CT imaging of neuroendocrine tumors using the Ga-68 labeled, high affinity somatostatin analogue DOTA-1-Nal3-octreotide (DOTA-NOC): clinical results in 327 patients. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2005;32:S54.
79. Koopmans KP, de Vries EG, Kema IP, Elsinga PH, Neels OC, Sluiter WJ et al. Staging of carcinoid tumours with 18F-DOPA PET: a prospective, diagnostic accuracy study. Lancet Oncol 2006;7:728-34.
80. Becherer A, Szabó M, Karanikas G, Wunderbaldinger P, Angelberger P, Raderer M. Imaging of Advanced Neuroendocrine Tumors with 18F-FDOPA PET. J Nucl Med 2004;45:1161-7.
81. Virgolini I, Traub-Weidinger T, Decristoforo C. Nuclear medicine in the detection and management of pancreatic Islet-cell tumors. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab 2004;19:213-27.
82. de Herder WW, Hofland LJ, van der Lely AJ, Lamberts SW. Somatostatin receptors in gastroentero-pancreatic neuroendocrine tumours. Endocr Relat Cancer 2003;10:451-8.
83. Mignon M. Natural history of neuroendocrine enteropancreatic tumors. Digestion 2000;62(Suppl 1):51-8.
84. Hoegerle S, Altehoefer C, Ghanem N, Koehler G, Waller CF, Scheruebl H et al. Whole-body 18F-dopa PET for detection of gastrointestinal carcinoid tumor. Radiology 2001;220:373-80.
85. Dizon AM, Kowalyk S, Hoogwerf B. Neuroglycopenic and other symptoms in patients with insulinomas. Am J Med 1999;106:307-10.
86. de Kerviler E, Cadiot G, Lebtahi R, Faraggi M, Le Guludec D, Mignon M et al. Somatostatin receptor scintigraphy in forty-eight patients with Zollinger-Ellison syndrome. GREZE: Group d'Etude du Syndrom de Zollinger-Ellison. Eur J Nucl Med 1994;21:1191-7.
87. Gibril F, Jensen RT. Comparative analysis of diagnostic techniques for localization of gastrointestinal neuroendocrine tumours. Yale Journal of Biological Medicine 1997;70:509-22.
88. Bertherat J, Tenenbaum F, Perlemoine K, Videau C, Alberini JL, Richard B et al. Somatostatin receptor 2 and 5 are the major somatostatin receptors in insulinomas; an in vivo and in vitro study. J Clin Endocrinol 2003;88:5353-60.
89. Mirallié E, Pattou F, Malvaux P, Filoche B, Godchaux JM, Maunoury V et al. Non-invasive imaging of insulinomas and gastrinomas with endoscopic ultrasonography and somatostatin receptor scintigraphy. Surgery 1998;124:1134-44.
90. Termanini B, Gibril F, Reynolds JC, Doppman JL, Chen CC, Stewart CA et al. Value of somatostatin receptor scintigraphy: a prospective study in gastrinoma of its effect on clinical management. Gastroenterology 1997;112:335-47.
91. Weber HC, Venzon DJ, Lin JT, Fishbein VA, Orbuch M, Strader DB et al. Determinants of metastatic rate and survival in patients with Zollinger-Ellison syndrome: a prospective long-term study. Gastroenterology 1995;108:1637-9.
92. Krausz Y, Keidar Z, Kogan I, Even-Sapir E, Bar-Shalom R, Engel A et al. SPECT/CT hybrid imaging with 111In-pentreotide in assessment of neuroendocrine tumours. J Clin Endocrinol 2003;59:565-73.
93. Tomassetti P, Migliori M, Lalli S, Campana D, Tomassetti V, Corinaldesi R. Epidemiology, clinical features and diagnosis of gastroenteropancreatic endocrine tumours. Ann Oncol 2001;12:S95-S9.
94. Jensen RT. Gastrointestinal endocrine tumours. Gastrinoma. Baillieres Clin Gastroenterol 1996;10:603-43.
95. Anderson MA, Carpenter S, Thompson NW, Nostrant TT, Elta GH, Scheiman JM. Endoscopic ultrasound is highly accurate and directs management in patients with neuroendocrine tumors of the pancreas. Am J Gastroenterol 2000;95:2271-7.
96. Jais P, Terris B, Ruszniewski P, LeRomancer M, Reyl-Desmars F, Vissuzaine C et al. Somatostatin receptor subtype gene expression in human endocrine gastroentero-pancreatic tumours. Eur J Clin Invest 1997;27:639-44.
97. Kauhanen S, Seppänen M, Minn H, Gullichsen R, Salonen A, Alanen K et al. Fluorine-18-L-dihydroxyphenylalanine (18F-DOPA) positron emission tomography as a tool to localize an insulinoma or beta-cell hyperplasia in adult patients. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2007;92:1237-44.
98. Ribeiro MJ, De Lonlay P, Delzescaux T, Boddaert N, Jaubert F, Bourgeois S et al. Characterization of hyperinsulinism in infancy assessed with PET and 18F-fluoro-L-DOPA. J Nucl Med 2005;46:560-6.
99. Shapiro B, Fig LM. Management of pheochromocytoma. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 1989;8:443-81.
100. Troncone L, Rufini V. 131I-MIBG therapy of neural crest tumours. Anticancer Res 1997;17:1823-31.
101. Erickson D, Kudva YC, Ebersold MJ, Thompson GB, Grant CS, van Heerden JA et al. Benign paragangliomas: clinical presentation and treatment outcomes in 236 patients. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2001;86:5210-6.
102. Grossman AB, Kaltsas GA. Adrenal medulla. Physiology and pathology. In: Besser GM, Thorner MO, editors. Comprehensive clinical endocrinology. Edinburgh: Blackwell; 2003. p. 223-37.
103. Schlumberger M, Gicquel C, Lumbroso J, Tenenbaum F, Comoy E, Bosq J et al. Malignant pheochromocytoma: clinical, biological, histologic and therapeutic data in a series of 20 patients with distant metastases. J Endocrinol Invest 1992;15:631-42.
104. Lewi HJ, Reid R, Mucci B, Davidson JK, Kyle KF, Macpherson SG et al. Malignant phaeochromocytoma. Br J Urol 1985;57:394-8.
105. Kebebew E, Duh QY. Benign and malignant pheochromocytoma: diagnosis, treatment, and follow-up. Surg Oncol Clin N Am 1998;7:765-89.
106. Eigelberger MS, Duh QY. Pheochromocytoma. Curr Treat Options Oncol 2001;2:321-9.
107. Bravo EL. Pheochromocytoma. Cardiol Rev 2002;10:44-50.
108. Baysal BE, Ferrell RE, Willett-Brozick JE, Lawrence EC, Myssiorek D, Bosch A et al. Mutations in SDHD, a mitochondrial complex II gene, in hereditary paraganglioma. Science 2000;287:848-51.
109. Pacak K, LinehanWM, Eisenhofer G, WaltherMM, Goldstein DS. Recent advances in genetics, diagnosis, localization, and treatment of pheochromocytoma. Ann Intern Med 2001;134:315-29.
110. Maurea S, Cuocolo A, Reynolds JC, Neumann RD, Salvatore M. Diagnostic imaging in patients with paragangliomas. Computed tomography, magnetic resonance and MIBG scintigraphy comparison. Q J Nucl Med 1996;40:365-71.
111. Tenenbaum F, Lumbroso J, Schlumberger M, Mure A, Plouin PF, Caillou B et al. Comparison of radiolabeled octreotide and meta-iodobenzylguanidine (MIBG) scintigraphy in malignant phaeochromocytoma. J Nucl Med 1995;36:1-6.
112. Shulkin B, Ilias I, Sisson J, Pacak K. Current trends in functional imaging of phaeochromocytomas and paragangliomas. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2006;1073:374-82.
113. Ilias I, Yu J, Carrasquillo JA, Chen CC, Eisenhofer G, Whatley M et al. Superiority of 6-[18F]-Fluorodopamine positron emission tomography versus [131I]-Metaiodobenzylguanidine scintigraphy in the localization of metastatic haeochromocytoma. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2003;88:4083-7.
114. Hoegerle S, Nitzsche E, Altehoefer C, Ghanem N, Manz T, Brink I. Pheochromocytomas: Detection with 18F DOPA, Whole-Body PET-Initial. Results Radiology 2002;222:507-12.
115. Mamede M, Carrasquillo JA, Chen CC, Del Corral P, Whatley M, Ilias I et al. Discordant localization of 2-[18F]-fluoro-2 deoxy-D-glucose in 6- [18F]-fluorodopamine- and [(123)I]-metaiodobenzylguanidine-negative metastatic phaeochromocytoma sites. Nucl Med Commun 2006;27:31-6.
116. Hoefngael CA, Kraker JD. Peadiatric tumours. In: El PJ, Gambhir SS, editors. Nuclear Medicine in Clinical Diagnosis and Treatment. Vol. 1. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone; 2004. p. 196-206.
117. Shulkin BL, Shapiro B. Current concepts on the diagnostic use of MIBG in children. J Nucl Med 1998;39:679-88.
118. Munkner T. 131I-meta-iodobenzylguanidine scintigraphy of neuroblastomas. Semin Nucl Med 1985;15:154-60.
119. Hoefnagel CA, Voûte PA, de Kraker J, Marcuse HR. Total-body scintigraphy with 131I-meta-iodobenzylguanidine for detection of neuroblastoma. Diagn Imaging Clin Med 1985;54:21-7.
120. Troncone L, Rufini V, Danza FM, Donfrancesco A, De Laurentis C, Cozza R et al. Radio iodinated metaiodobenzylguanidine (I-MIBG) scintigraphy in neuroblastoma: a review of 160 studies. J Nucl Med Allied Sci 1990;34:279-88.
121. Hadj-Djilani NL, Lebtahi NE, Delaloye AB, Laurini R, Beck D. Diagnosis and follow-up of neuroblastoma by means of iodine-123 metaiodobenzylguanidine scintigraphy and bone scan, and the influence of histology. Eur J Nucl Med 1995;22:322-9.
122. O'Dorisio MS, Hauger M, Cecalupo AJ. Somatostatin receptors in neuroblastoma: diagnostic and therapeutic implications. Semin Oncol 1994;21:33-7. (Pubitemid 24378903)
123. Schilling FH, Bihl H, Jacobsson H, Ambros PF, Martinsson T, Borgström P et al. Combined (111)In-pentetreotide scintigraphy and (123)I-mIBG scintigraphy in neuroblastoma provides prognostic information. Med Pediatr Oncol 2000;35:688-91.
124. Hoefnagel CA. Metaiodobenzylguanidine and somatostatin in oncology: role in the management of neural crest tumours. Eur J Nucl Med 1994;21:561-81.
125. Briganti V, Sestini R, Orlando C, Bernini G, La Cava G, Tamburini A et al. Imaging of somatostatin receptors by indium-111-pentetreotide correlates with quantitative determination of somatostatin receptor type 2 gene expression in neuroblastoma tumors. Clin Cancer Res 1997;3:2385-91. (Pubitemid 28133159)
126. Perel Y, Conway J, Kletzel M, Goldman J, Weiss S, Feyler A et al. Clinical impact and prognostic value of metaiodobenzylguanidine imaging in children with metastatic neuroblastoma. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 1999;21:13-8. (Pubitemid 29131988)
127. Shulkin BL, Wieland DM, Baro ME, Ungar DR, Mitchell DS, Dole MG et al. PET hydroxyephedrine imaging of neuroblastoma. J Nucl Med 1996;37:16-21.
128. Kushner BH, Yeung HW, Larson SM, Kramer K, Cheung NK. Extending positron emission tomography scan utility to high-risk neuroblastoma: fluorine-18 fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography as sole imaging modality in follow-up of patients. J Clin Oncol 2001;19:3397-405. (Pubitemid 32642193)
129. Kushner BH. Neuroblastoma: a disease requiring a multitude of imaging studies. J Nucl Med 2004;45:1172-88.
130. de Groot JW, Links TP, Jager PL, Kahraman T, Plukker TM. Impact of 18F-Fluoro-2-Deoxy-D-Glucose Positron EmissionTomography (FDG-PET) in Patients with Biochemical Evidence of Recurrent or Residual Medullary Thyroid Cancer. Ann Surg Oncol 2004;11:786-94. (Pubitemid 40486694)
131. Saad MF, Ordonez NG, Rashid RK, Guido JJ, Hill CS Jr, Hickey RC et al. Medullary carcinoma of the thyroid: study of the clinical features and prognostic factors in 161 patients. Medicine 1984;63:319-42.
132. Kebebew E, Ituarte PH, Siperstein AE, Duh QY, Klark OH. Medullary thyroid carcinoma: clinical characteristics, treatment, prognostic factors, and a comparison of staging systems. Cancer 2000;88:1139-48. (Pubitemid 30127676)
133. Szakáll S Jr, Esik O, Bajzik G, Repa I, Dabasi G, Sinkovics I et al. 18F-FDG PET Detection of Lymph Node Metastases in Medullary Thyroid Carcinoma. J Nucl Med 2002;43:66-71. (Pubitemid 34101190)
134. Raue F. German medullary thyroid carcinoma/multiple endocrine neoplasia registry. German MTC/MEN Study Group. Medullary Thyroid Carcinoma/Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia Type 2. Langenbecks Arch Surg 1998;383:334-6.
135. Soh EY, Clark OH. Surgical considerations and approach to thyroid cancer. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 1996;25:115-39.
136. Clarke SEM. Medullary thyroid cancer. In: Ell PJ, Gambhir SS, editors. Nuclear Medicine in Clinical Diagnosis and Treatment. Vol. 1. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone; 2004. p. 166-74.
137. Adalet I, Kocak M, Oguz H, Alagol F, Cantez S. Determination of medullary thyroid carcinoma metastases by 201Tl, 99Tcm- (V)DMSA, 99Tcm-MIBI and 99Tcm-tetrofosmin. Nucl Med Commun 1999;20:353-9.
138. Berna L, Cabezas R, Mora J, Torres G, Estorch M, Carrio I. 111In-octreotide and 99mTc(V)-dimercaptosuccinic acid studies in the imaging of recurrent medullary thyroid carcinoma. J Endocrinol 1995;144:339-45.
139. Adams S, Baum RP, Hertel A, Schumm-Dräger PM, Usadel KH, Hor G. Comparison of metabolic and receptor imaging in recurrent medullary thyroid carcinoma with histopathological findings. Eur J Nucl Med 1998;25:1277-83. (Pubitemid 28446054)
140. Diehl M, Risse JH, Brandt-Mainz K, Dietlein M, Bohuslavizki KH, Matheja P et al. Fluorine-18 fluorodeoxyglucosepositron emission tomography in medullary thyroid cancer: results of a multicentre study. Eur J Nucl Med 2001;28:1671-6. (Pubitemid 33036110)
141. Wiseman GA, Kvols LK. Therapy of neuroendocrine tumors with radiolabeled MIBG and somatostatin analogues. Semin Nucl Med 1995;25:272-8.
142. Reubi JC, Chayvialle JA, Franc B, Cohen R, Calmettes C, Modigliani E. Somatostatin receptors and somatostatin content in medullary thyroid carcinomas. Lab Invest 1991;64:567-3.
143. Hoegerle S, Altehoefer C, Ghanem N, Brink I, Moser E, Nitzsche E. 18F-DOPA positron emission tomography for tumour detection in patients with medullary thyroid carcinoma and elevated calcitonin levels. Eur J Nucl Med 2001;28:64-71. (Pubitemid 32120808)
144. Gotthardt M, Battmann A, Höffken H, Schurrat T, Pollum H, Beuter D et al. 18F-FDG PET, somatostatin receptor scintigraphy, and CT in metastatic medullary thyroid carcinoma: a clinical study and an analysis of the literature. Nucl Med Commun 2004;25:439-443. (Pubitemid 38591103)