Cervical cancer: Screening and therapeutic perspectives

Medical Principles and Practice

Volumn 17, Issue 5, 2008, Pages 351-364

  Sankaranarayanan, Rengaswamy ^a   Thara, Somanathan ^b   Esmy, Pulikottil Okkuru ^c   Basu, Partha ^d  

^a INTERNATIONAL AGENCY FOR RESEARCH ON CANCER   (France)

^b REGIONAL CANCER CENTRE   (India)

^c Christian Fellowship Community Health Centre   (India)

^d CHITTARANJAN NATIONAL CANCER INSTITUTE   (India)

Author keywords

Cervical cancer, screening and therapy

Indexed keywords

ANTINEOPLASTIC AGENT; CISPLATIN; FLUOROURACIL; WART VIRUS VACCINE;

AFRICA; ASIA; CANCER CHEMOTHERAPY; CANCER INCIDENCE; CANCER MORTALITY; CANCER RADIOTHERAPY; CANCER SCREENING; CANCER STAGING; CANCER SURGERY; COST EFFECTIVENESS ANALYSIS; CRYOTHERAPY; GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION; HEALTH PROGRAM; HUMAN; MONOTHERAPY; REVIEW; SOUTH AND CENTRAL AMERICA; UNSPECIFIED SIDE EFFECT; UTERINE CERVIX CANCER; WART VIRUS;

FEMALE; HUMANS; INCIDENCE; MASS SCREENING; UTERINE CERVICAL NEOPLASMS; WORLD HEALTH;

EID: 49449112813     PISSN: 10117571     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1159/000141498     Document Type: Review

References (75)

1. Ferlay J, Bray F, Pisani P, Parkin DM: Cancer Incidence, Mortality and Prevalence Worldwide. GLOBOCAN 2002. IARC Cancer Base 5, ed 2. Lyon, IARC Press, 2004.
2. Muñoz N, Bosch FX, de Sanjosé S, Herrero R, Castellsagué X, Shah KV, Snijders PJ, Meijer CJ: International Agency for Research on Cancer Multicenter Cervical Cancer Study Group: Epidemiologic classification of human papillomavirus types associated with cervical cancer. N Engl J Med 2003;348:518-527.
3. Parkin DM, Whelan SL, Ferlay J, Teppo L, Thomas DB: Cancer Incidence in Five Continents. IARC Sci Publ No 155. Lyon, IARC Press, 2002, vol VIII.
4. Gondos A, Brenner H, Wabinga H, Parkin DM: Cancer survival in Kampala, Uganda. Br J Cancer 2005;92:1808-1812.
5. Chokunonga E, Ramanakumar AV, Nyakabau AM, Borok MZ, Chirenje ZM, Sankila R, Parkin DM: Survival of cervix cancer patients in Harare, Zimbabwe, 1995-1997. Int J Cancer 2004;109:274-277.
6. Sankaranarayanan R, Black RJ, Parkin DM: Cancer Survival in Developing Countries. IARC Sci Publ No 15. Lyon, IARC Press, 1988.
7. Wang H, Chia KS, Du WB, Lee J, Sankaranarayanan R, Sankila R, Sng I, Seow A, Lee HP: Population-based survival for cervical cancer in Singapore, 1968-1992. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2003;188:324-329.
8. Ries LAG, Eisner MP, Kosary CL, et al (eds): SEER Cancer Statistics Review, 1975-2001. Bethesda, National Cancer Institute, 2004. Available at: http://seer.cancer.gov/csr/1975_2001/.
9. The EUROCARE Working Group. EUROCARE-3: survival of cancer patients diagnosed 1990-94 - results and commentary. Ann Oncol 2003;14:v61-v118.
10. Muñoz N, Bosch FX, Castellsagué X, Díaz M, de Sanjose S, Hammouda D, Shah KV, Meijer CJ: Against which human papillomavirus types shall we vaccinate and screen? The international perspective. Int J Cancer 2004;111:278-285.
11. Smith JS, Lindsay L, Hoots B, Keys J, Franceschi S, Winer R, Clifford GM: Human papillomavirus type distribution in invasive cervical cancer and high-grade cervical lesions: a meta-analysis update. Int J Cancer 2007;121:621-632.
12. Clifford GM, Smith JS, Plummer M, Muñoz N, Franceschi S: Human papillomavirus types in invasive cancer worldwide: a meta-analysis. Br J Cancer 2003;88:63-73.
13. Brown DR, Fife KH, Wheeler CM, Koutsky LA, Lupinacci LM, Railkar R, Suhr G, Barr E, Dicello A, Li W, Smith JF, Tadesse A, Jansen KU: Early assessment of the efficacy of a human papillomavirus type 16 L1 virus-like particle vaccine. Vaccine 2004;22:2936-2942.
14. Harper DM, Franco EL, Wheeler C, Ferris DG, Jenkins D, Schuind A, Zahaf T, Innis B, Naud P, De Carvalho NS, Roteli-Martins CM, Teixeira J, Blatter MM, Korn AP, Quint W, Dubin G; GlaxoSmithKline HPV Vaccine Study Group: Efficacy of a bivalent L1 virus-like particle vaccine in prevention of infection with human papillomavirus types 16 and 18 in young women: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2004;364:1757-1765.
15. Harper DM, Franco EL, Wheeler CM, Moscicki AB, Romanowski B, Roteli-Martins CM, Jenkins D, Schuind A, Costa Clemens SA, Dubin G; HPV Vaccine Study Group: Sustained efficacy up to 4.5 years of a bivalent L1 virus-like particle vaccine against human papillomavirus types 16 and 18: follow-up from a randomised control trial. Lancet 2006;367:1247-1255.
16. Koutsky LA, Ault KA, Wheeler CM, Brown DR, Barr E, Alvarez FB, Chiacchierini LM, Jansen KU; Proof of Principle Study Investigators: A controlled trial of a human papillomavirus type 16 vaccine. N Engl J Med 2002;347:1645-1651.
17. Mao C, Koutsky LA, Ault KA, Wheeler CM, Brown DR, Wiley DJ, Alvarez FB, Bautista OM, Jansen KU, Barr E: Efficacy of human papillomavirus-16 vaccine to prevent cervical intraepithelial neoplasia: a randomized controlled trial. Obstet Gynecol 2006;107:18-27.
18. Villa LL, Costa RL, Petta CA, Andrade RP, Ault KA, Giuliano AR, Wheeler CM, Koutsky LA, Malm C, Lehtinen M, Skjeldestad FE, Olsson SE, Steinwall M, Brown DR, Kurman RJ, Ronnett BM, Stoler MH, Ferenczy A, Harper DM, Tamms GM, Yu J, Lupinacci L, Railkar R, Taddeo FJ, Jansen KU, Esser MT, Sings HL, Saah AJ, Barr E: Prophylactic quadrivalent human papillomavirus (types 6, 11, 16, and 18) L1 virus-like particle vaccine in young women: a randomised double-blind placebo-controlled multicentre phase II efficacy trial. Lancet Oncol 2005;6:271-278.
19. Villa LL, Ault KA, Giuliano AR, Costa RL, Petta CA, Andrade RP, Brown DR, Ferenczy A, Harper DM, Koutsky LA, Kurman RJ, Lehtinen M, Malm C, Olsson SE, Ronnett BM, Skjeldestad FE, Steinwall M, Stoler MH, Wheeler CM, Taddeo FJ, Yu J, Lupinacci L, Railkar R, Marchese R, Esser MT, Bryan J, Jansen KU, Sings HL, Tamms GM, Saah AJ, Barr E: Immunologic responses following administration of a vaccine targeting human papillomavirus types 6, 11, 16, and 18. Vaccine 2006;24:5571-5583.
20. Koutsky LA, Harper DM: Chapter 13. Current findings from prophylactic HPV vaccine trials. Vaccine 2006;24(suppl 3):S114-S121.
21. The Future II Study Group: Quadrivalent vaccine against human papillomavirus to prevent high-grade cervical lesions. N Engl J Med 2007;356:1915-1927.
22. Agosti J, Goldie S: Introducing HPV vaccine in developing countries: key challenges and issues. N Engl J Med 2007;356:1908-1910.
23. Sankaranarayanan R, Budukh A, Rajkumar R: Effective screening programs for cervical cancer in low- and middle-income developing countries. Bull World Health Organ 2001;79:954-962.
24. Fahey MT, Irwig L, Macaskill P: Meta-analysis of Pap test accuracy. Am J Epidemiol 1995;141:680-689.
25. Nanda K, McCrory DC, Myers ER, Bastian LA, Hasselblad V, Hickey JD, Matchar DB: Accuracy of the Papanicolaou test in screening for and follow-up of cervical cytologic abnormalities: a systematic review. Ann Intern Med 2000;132:810-819.
26. Sankaranarayanan R, Gaffikin L, Jacob M, Sellors J, Robles S: A critical assessment of screening methods for cervical neoplasia. Int J Gynaecol Obstet 2005;89(suppl 2):S4-S12.
27. IARC Handbooks on Cancer Prevention. Lyon, IARC Press, 2004, vol 10: Cervix Cancer Screening.
28. Sepulveda CC, Prado R: Effective cervical cytology screening programmes in middleincome countries: the Chilean experience. Cancer Detect Prev 2005;29:405-411.
29. Klinkamer PJ, Meerding WJ, Rosier PF, Hanselaar AG: Liquid-based cervical cytology. Cancer 2003;99:263-271.
30. Davey E, Barratt A, Irwig L, Chan SF, Macaskill P, Mannes P, Saville AM: Effect of study design and quality on unsatisfactory rates, cytology classifications, and accuracy in liquid-based versus conventional cervical cytology: a systematic review. Lancet 2006;367:122-132.
31. Ronco G, Cuzick J, Pierotti P, Cariaggi MP, Dalla Palma P, Naldoni C, Ghiringhello B, Giorgi-Rossi P, Minucci D, Parisio F, Pojer A, Schiboni ML, Sintoni C, Zorzi M, Segnan N, Confortini M: Accuracy of liquid based versus conventional cytology: overall results of new technologies for cervical cancer screening: randomised controlled trial. BMJ 2007;335:28-31.
32. Franco EL: Primary screening of cervical cancer with human papillomavirus tests. J Natl Cancer Inst Monogr 2003;31:89-96.
33. Koliopoulos G, Arbyn M, Martin-Hirsch P, Kyrgiou M, Prendiville W, Paraskevaidis E: Diagnostic accuracy of human papillomavirus testing in primary cervical screening: a systematic review and meta-analysis of non-randomized studies. Gynecol Oncol 2007;104:232-246.
34. Naucler P, Ryd W, Törnberg S, Strand A, Wadell G, Elfgren K, Rådberg T, Strander B, Forslund O, Hansson BG, Rylander E, Dillner J: Human papillomavirus and Papanicolaou tests to screen for cervical cancer. N Engl J Med 2007;357:1589-1597.
35. Mayrand MH, Duarte-Franco E, Rodrigues I, Walter SD, Hanley J, Ferenczy A, Ratnam S, Coutlée F, Franco EL; Canadian Cervical Cancer Screening Trial Study Group: Human papillomavirus DNA versus Papanicolaou screening tests for cervical cancer. N Engl J Med 2007;357:1579-1588.
36. Bulkmans N, Berkhof J, Rozendaal L, van Kemenade F, Boeke A, Bulk S, Voorhorst F, Verheijen R, van Groningen K, Boon M, Ruitinga W, van Ballegooijen M, Snijders P, Meijer C: Human papillomavirus DNA testing for the detection of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia grade 3 and cancer: 5-year follow-up of a randomised controlled implementation trial. Lancet 2007;370:1764-1772.
37. Stewart DE, Gagliardi A, Johnston M, Howlett R, Barata P, Lewis N, Oliver T, Mai V: Self-collected samples for testing of oncogenic human papillomavirus: a systematic review. J Obstet Gynaecol Can 2007;29:817-828.
38. Sankaranarayanan R, Nene BM, Dinshaw KA, Mahe C, Jayant K, Shastri SS, Malvi SG, Chinoy R, Kelkar R, Budukh AM, Keskar V, Rajeshwarker R, Muwonge R, Kane S, Parkin DM, Chauhan MK, Desai S, Fontaniere B, Frappart L, Kothari A, Lucas E, Panse N; Osmanabad District Cervical Screening Study Group: A cluster randomized controlled trial of visual, cytology and human papillomavirus screening for cancer of the cervix in rural India. Int J Cancer 2005;116:617-623.
39. Kitchener HC, Fletcher I, Roberts C, Wheeler P, Almonte M, Maguire P: The psychosocial impact of human papillomavirus testing in primary cervical screening: a study within a randomized trial. Int J Gynecol Cancer 2007, E-pub ahead of print.
40. Sankaranarayanan R, Wesley R: A Practical Manual on Visual Screening for Cervical Neoplasia. IARC Tech Publ No 41. Lyon, IARC Press, 2003.
41. Blumenthal PD, Lauterbach M, Sellors JW, Sankaranarayanan R: Training for cervical cancer prevention programs in low-resource settings: focus on visual inspection with acetic acid and cryotherapy. Int J Gynaecol Obstet 2005;89(suppl 2):S30-S37.
42. Mcintosh N, Blumenthal PD, Blouse A (eds): Cervical Cancer Prevention Guidelines for Low-Resource Settings. JHPIEGO Technical Manual. Baltimore, JHPIEGO, 2001.
43. http://screening.iarc.fr
44. Gaffikin L, Blumenthal PD, Emerson M, Limpaphayom K: Safety, acceptability, and feasibility of a single-visit approach to cervical-cancer prevention in rural Thailand: a demonstration project. Lancet 2003;361:814-820.
45. Blumenthal PD, Gaffikin L, Deganus S, Lewis R, Emerson M, Adadevoh S: Cervical cancer prevention: safety, acceptability, and feasibility of a single-visit approach in Accra, Ghana. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2007;196: 407-408.
46. Mathers LJ, Wigton TR, Leonhardt JG: Screening for cervical neoplasia in an unselected rural Guatemalan population using direct visual inspection after acetic acid application: a pilot study. J Low Genit Tract Dis 2005;9:232-235.
47. Denny L, Kuhn L, De SM, Pollack AE, Dupree W, Wright TC Jr: Screen-and-treat approaches for cervical cancer prevention in low-resource settings: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2005;294:173-181.
48. Sankaranarayanan R, Esmy PO, Rajkumar R, Muwonge R, Swaminathan R, Shanthakumari S, Fayette JM, Cherian J: Effect of visual screening on cervical cancer incidence and mortality in Tamil Nadu, India: a cluster-randomised trial. Lancet 2007;370:398-406.
49. Shastri SS, Dinshaw K, Amin G, Goswami S, Patil S, Chinoy R, Kane S, Kelkar R, Muwonge R, Mahé C, Ajit D, Sankaranarayanan R: Concurrent evaluation of visual, cytological and HPV testing as screening methods for the early detection of cervical neoplasia in Mumbai, India. Bull World Health Organ 2005;83:186-194.
50. Sankaranarayanan R, Basu P, Wesley RS, Mahe C, Keita N, Mbalawa CC, Sharma R, Dolo A, Shastri SS, Nacoulma M, Nayama M, Somanathan T, Lucas E, Muwonge R, Frappart L, Parkin DM; IARC Multicentre Study Group on Cervical Cancer Early Detection: Accuracy of visual screening for cervical neoplasia: results from an IARC multicentre study in India and Africa. Int J Cancer 2004;110:907-913.
51. Sarian LO, Derchain SF, Naud P, Roteli-Martins C, Longatto-Filho A, Tatti S, Branca M, Erzen M, Serpa-Hammes L, Matos J, Gontijo R, Bragança JF, Lima TP, Maeda MY, Lörincz A, Dores GB, Costa S, Syrjänen S, Syrjänen K: Evaluation of visual inspection with acetic acid (VIA), Lugol's iodine (VILI), cervical cytology and HPV testing as cervical screening tools in Latin America. This report refers to partial results from the LAMS (Latin American Screening) study. J Med Screen 2005;12:142-149.
52. Sangwa-Lugoma G, Mahmud S, Nasr SH, Liaras J, Kayembe PK, Tozin RR, Drouin P, Lorincz A, Ferenczy A, Franco EL: Visual inspection as a cervical cancer screening method in a primary health care setting in Africa. Int J Cancer 2006;119:1389-1395.
53. Mandelblatt JS, Lawrence WF, Gaffikin L, Limpahayom KK, Lumbiganon P, Warakamin S, King J, Yi B, Ringers P, Blumenthal PD: Costs and benefits of different strategies to screen for cervical cancer in less-developed countries. J Natl Cancer Inst 2002;94:1469-1483.
54. Goldie S, Gaffikin L, Goldhaber-Fiebert J, Gordillo-Tobar A, Levin C, Mahe C, Wright T: Cost effectiveness of cervical screening in five developing countries. N Engl J Med 2005;353:2158-2168.
55. Sellors J, Sankaranarayanan R: Colposcopy and Treatment of Cervical Intraepithelial Neoplasia: A Beginners' Manual. Lyon, IARC Press, 2003.
56. Alliance for Cervical Cancer Prevention: Effectiveness, Safety, and Acceptability of Cryotherapy: A Systematic Literature Review. Seattle, PATH, 2003. www.path.org/files/RH_cryo_white_paper.pdf.
57. Sankaranarayanan R, Rajkumar R, Esmy PO, Fayette JM, Shanthakumary S, Frappart L, Thara S, Cherian J: Effectiveness, safety and acceptability of 'see and treat' with cryotherapy by nurses in a cervical screening study in India. Br J Cancer 2007;96:738-743.
58. Martin-Hirsch PL, Paraskevaidis E, Kitchener H: Surgery for cervical intraepithelial neoplasia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 1999;3:CD001318.
59. Nuovo J, Melnikow J, Willan AR, Chan BK: Treatment outcomes for squamous intraepithelial lesions. Int J Gynaecol Obstet 2000;68:25-33.
60. Alvarez RD, Helm CW, Edwards RP, Naumann RW, Partridge EE, Shingleton HM, McGee JA, Hall JB, Higgins RV, Malone JM Jr: Prospective randomised trial of LLETZ versus laser ablation in patients with cervical intra-epithelial neoplasia. Gynecol Oncol 1994;52:175-179.
61. Gunasekera PC, Phipps J, Lewis B: Large loop excision of the transformation zone (LLETZ) compared to carbon dioxide treatment of CIN: a superior mode of treatment. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1990;97:995-998.
62. Mitchell MF, Tortolero-Luna G, Cook E, Whittaker L, Rhodes-Morris H, Silva E: A randomized clinical trial of cryotherapy, laser vaporization, and loop electrosurgical excision for treatment of squamous intraepithelial lesions of the cervix. Obstet Gynecol 1998;92:737-744.
63. Murdoch JB, Morgan PR, Lopes A, Monaghan JM: Histological incomplete excision of CIN after large loop excision of the transformation zone (LLETZ) merits careful follow-up, not retreatment. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1992;99:990-993.
64. Ghaem-Maghami S, Saji S, Majeed G, Soutter WP: Incomplete excision of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia and risk of treatment failure: a meta-analysis. Lancet Oncol 2007;8:985-993.
65. Panoskaltsis T, Ind TE, Perryman K, Dina R, Abrahams Y, Soutter WP: Needle versus loop diathermy excision of the transformation zone for the treatment of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia: a randomised controlled trial. BJOG 2004;111:748-753.
66. Piver MS, Rose PG, Freedman MF: Change in International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics staging. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1988;158:678-679.
67. Landoni F, Maneo A, Colombo A, Placa F, Milani R, Perego P, Favini G, Ferri L, Mangioni C: Randomized study of radical surgery versus radiotherapy for stage IB-IIA cervical cancer. Lancet 1997;350:535-540.
68. Hareyama M, Sakata K, Oouchi A, Nagakura H, Shido M, Someya M, Koito K: High-dose-rate versus low-dose-rate intracavitary therapy for carcinoma of the uterine cervix: a randomized trial. Cancer 2002;94:117-124.
69. Lertsanguansinchai P, Lertbutsayanukul C, Shotelersuk K, Khorprasert C, Rojpornpradit P, Chottetanaprasith T, Srisuthep A, Suriyapee S, Jumpangern C, Tresukosol D, Charoonsantikul C: Phase III randomized trial comparing LDR and HDR brachytherapy in treatment of cervical carcinoma. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 2004;59:1424-1431.
70. Thomas GM: Improved treatment for cervical cancer-concurrent chemotherapy and radiotherapy. N Engl J Med 1999;340:1198-1200.
71. Green JA, Kirwan JM, Tierney JF, Symonds P, Fresco L, Collingwood M, Williams CJ: Survival and recurrence after concomitant chemotherapy and radiotherapy for cancer of the uterine cervix: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet 2001;358:781-786.
72. Whitney CW, Sause W, Bundy BN, Malfetano JH, Hannigan EV, Fowler WC Jr, Clarke-Pearson DL, Liao SY: Randomized comparison of fluorouracil plus cisplatin versus hydroxyurea as an adjunct to radiation therapy in stage IIB-IVA carcinoma of the cervix with negative para-aortic lymph nodes: a Gynecologic Oncology Group and Southwest Oncology Group study. J Clin Oncol 1999;17:1339-1348.
73. Thomas GM: Concurrent chemotherapy and radiation for locally advanced cervical cancer: the new standard of care. Semin Radiat Oncol 2000;10:44-50.
74. Portelance L, Chao KS, Grigsby PW, Bennet H, Low D: Intensity-modulated radiation therapy (IMRT) reduces small bowel, rectum, and bladder doses in patients with cervical cancer receiving pelvic and para-aortic irradiation. Int J Radiat Biol Phys 2001;51:261-266.
75. Heron DE, Gerszten K, Selvaraj RN, King GC, Sonnik D, Gallion H, Comerci J, Edwards RP, Wu A, Andrade RS, Kalnicki S: Conventional 3D conformal versus intensity-modulated radiotherapy for the adjuvant treatment of gynecologic malignancies: a comparative dosimetric study of dose-volume histograms small star, filled. Gynecol Oncol 2003;91:39-45.