Environmental factors in the etiology of gastroesophageal reflux disease

Expert Review of Gastroenterology and Hepatology

Volumn 2, Issue 1, 2008, Pages 93-103

  Nordenstedt, Helena ^a   Lagergren, Jesper ^a  

^a KAROLINSKA INSTITUTE   (Sweden)

Author keywords

Etiology; Gastroesophageal reflux disease; Lifestyle; Reflux symptom; Risk factor

Indexed keywords

BENZODIAZEPINE DERIVATIVE; BETA ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR STIMULATING AGENT; BRONCHODILATING AGENT; CALCIUM CHANNEL BLOCKING AGENT; DIGESTIVE TRACT AGENT; ESTROGEN; GLYCERYL TRINITRATE; MORPHINE; PROTON PUMP INHIBITOR; SEROTONIN 1 AGONIST; SEX HORMONE; SUMATRIPTAN; THEOPHYLLINE;

ABDOMINAL PRESSURE; AGE; ALCOHOL CONSUMPTION; ASTHMA; BARIATRIC SURGERY; BARRETT ESOPHAGUS; CIGARETTE SMOKING; CLINICAL TRIAL; DIAGNOSTIC ERROR; DIETARY INTAKE; DISEASE CLASSIFICATION; DISEASE COURSE; DISEASE DURATION; DISEASE SEVERITY; DYSPEPSIA; ENVIRONMENTAL FACTOR; ESOPHAGEAL ADENOCARCINOMA; ESOPHAGOSCOPY; ESOPHAGUS PH; ESOPHAGUS PRESSURE; ESOPHAGUS STRICTURE; EVIDENCE BASED MEDICINE; GASTROESOPHAGEAL REFLUX; GENDER; GENETIC RISK; HELICOBACTER INFECTION; HELICOBACTER PYLORI; HEREDITY; HIATUS HERNIA; HISTOPATHOLOGY; HUMAN; LIFESTYLE; LIFESTYLE MODIFICATION; LOWER ESOPHAGUS SPHINCTER PRESSURE; MENOPAUSAL SYNDROME; OBESITY; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PHYSICAL ACTIVITY; POPULATION RESEARCH; PREVALENCE; PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT; RESPIRATORY TRACT DISEASE; REVIEW; RISK ASSESSMENT; RISK FACTOR; RISK MANAGEMENT; SMOKING HABIT; SOCIOECONOMICS; STOMACH ACID SECRETION; STOMACH EMPTYING; SYMPTOM;

ENVIRONMENT; GASTROESOPHAGEAL REFLUX; HUMANS; LIFE STYLE; RISK FACTORS;

EID: 49149111247     PISSN: 17474124     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1586/17474124.2.1.93     Document Type: Review

References (143)

1. Dent J, El-Serag HB, Wallander MA, Johansson S. Epidemiology of gastro-oesophageal reflux disease: a systematic review. Gut 54(5), 710-717 (2005).
2. Nandurkar S, Locke GR 3rd, Murray JA et al. Rates of endoscopy and endoscopic findings among people with frequent symptoms of gastroesophageal reflux in the community. Am. J. Gastroenterol. 100(7), 1459-1465 (2005).
3. Shaheen NJ, Hansen RA, Morgan DR et al. The burden of gastrointestinal and liver diseases, 2006. Am. J. Gastroenterol. 101(9), 2128-2138 (2006).
4. Liker H, Hungin P, Wildund I. Managing gastroesophageal reflux disease in primary care: the patient perspective. J. Am. Board. Fam. Pract. 18(5), 393-400 (2005).
5. Kulig M, Leodolter A, Vieth M et al. Quality of life in relation to symptoms in patients with gastro-oesophageal reflux disease - an analysis based on the ProGERD initiative. Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther. 18(8), 767-776 (2003).
6. Revicki DA, Wood M, Maton PN, Sorensen S. The impact of gastroesophageal reflux disease on health-related quality of life. Am. J. Med. 104(3), 252-258 (1998).
7. Agreus L, Borgquist L. The cost of gastro-oesophageal reflux disease, dyspepsia and peptic ulcer disease in Sweden. Pharmacoeconomics 20(5), 347-355 (2002).
8. Sandler RS, Everhart JE, Donowitz M et al. The burden of selected digestive diseases in the United States. Gastroenterology 122(5), 1500-1511 (2002).
9. Wahlqvist P, Reilly MC, Barkun A. Systematic review: the impact of gastro-oesophageal reflux disease on work productivity. Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther. 24(2), 259-272 (2006).
10. Napierkowski J, Wong RK. Extraesophageal manifestations of GERD. Am. J. Med. Sci. 326(5), 285-299 (2003).
11. Nordenstedt H, Nilsson M, Johansson S et al. The relation between gastroesophageal reflux and respiratory symptoms in a population-based study: the Nord-Trondelag health survey. Chest 129(4), 1051-1056 (2006).
12. Lagergren J, Bergstrom R, Lindgren A, Nyren O. Symptomatic gastroesophageal reflux as a risk factor for esophageal adenocarcinoma. N. Engl. J. Med. 340(11), 825-831 (1999).
13. Devesa SS, Blot WJ, Fraumeni JF Jr. Changing patterns in the incidence of esophageal and gastric carcinoma in the United States. Cancer 83(10), 2049-2053 (1998).
14. Dent J. Review article: from 1906 to 2006 - a century of major evolution of understanding of gastro-oesophageal reflux disease. Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther. 24(9), 1269-1281 (2006).
15. Behar J, Biancani P, Sheahan DG. Evaluation of esophageal tests in the diagnosis of reflux esophagitis. Gastroenterology 71(1), 9-15 (1976).
16. Aro P, Ronkainen J, Talley NJ et al. Body mass index and chronic unexplained gastrointestinal symptoms: an adult endoscopic population based study. Gut 54(10), 1377-1383 (2005).
17. Vakil N, van Zanten SV, Kahrilas P, Dent J, Jones R. The Montreal definition and classification of gastroesophageal reflux disease: a global evidence-based consensus. Am. J. Gastroenterol. 101 (8), 1900-1920 (2006).
18. Locke GR 3rd, Talley NJ, Fett SL, Zinsmeister AR, Melton LJ 3rd. Prevalence and clinical spectrum of gastroesophageal reflux: a population-based study in Olmsted County, Minnesota. Gastroenterology 112(5), 1448-1456 (1997).
19. Nilsson M, Johnsen R, Ye W, Hveem K, Lagergren J. Prevalence of gastro-oesophageal reflux symptoms and the influence of age and sex. Scand. J. Gastroenterol. 39(11), 1040-1045 (2004).
20. Isolauri J, Laippala P. Prevalence of symptoms suggestive of gastro-oesophageal reflux disease in an adult population. Ann. Med. 27(1), 67-70 (1995).
21. Nebel OT, Fornes MF, Castell DO. Symptomatic gastroesophageal reflux: incidence and precipitating factors. Am. J. Dig. Dis. 21(11), 953-956 (1976).
22. Ho KY, Kang JY, Seow A. Prevalence of gastrointestinal symptoms in a multiracial Asian population, with particular reference to reflux-type symptoms. Am. J. Gastroenterol. 93(10), 1816-1822 (1998).
23. Wong BC, Kinoshita Y. Systematic review on epidemiology of gastroesophageal reflux disease in Asia. Clin. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 4(4), 398-407 (2006).
24. Khoshbaten M. Gastro-esophageal reflux disease in northwestern Tabriz, Iran. Indian J. Gastroenterol. 22(4), 138-139 (2003).
25. Moraes-Filho JP, Chinzon D, Eisig JN, Hashimoto CL, Zaterka S. Prevalence of heartburn and gastroesophageal reflux disease in the urban Brazilian population. Arq. Gastroenterol. 42(2), 122-127 (2005).
26. Wong VM, Lai KC, Lam KF et al. Prevalence, clinical spectrum and health care utilization of gastro-oesophageal reflux disease in a Chinese population: a population-based study. Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther. 18(6), 595-604 (2003).
27. Rantanen TK, Sihvo EI, Rasanen JV, Salo JA. Gastroesophageal reflux disease as a cause of death is increasing: analysis of fatal cases after medical and surgical treatment. Am. J. Gastroenterol. 102(2), 246-253 (2007).
28. el-Serag HB, Sonnenberg A. Opposing time trends of peptic ulcer and reflux disease. Gut 43(3), 327-333 (1998).
29. El-Serag HB. Time trends of gastroesophageal reflux disease: a systematic review. Clin. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 5(1), 17-26 (2007).
30. Koufman JA. The otolaryngologic manifestations of gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD): a clinical investigation of 225 patients using ambulatory 24-hour PH monitoring and an experimental investigation of the role of acid and pepsin in the development of laryngeal injury. Laryngoscope 101 (4 Pt 2 Suppl. 53), 1-78 (1991).
31. Beck IT. Determination of acid sensitivity, mucosal damage and esophagitis. Mod. Treat. 7(6), 1120-1135 (1970).
32. Mittal RK, Balaban DH. The esophagogastric junction. N. Engl. J. Med. 336(13), 924-932 (1997).
33. Dodds WJ, Dent J, Hogan WJ et al. Mechanisms of gastroesophageal reflux in patients with reflux esophagitis. N. Engl J. Med. 307(25), 1547-1552 (1982).
34. Miller L, Vegesna A, Kalra A et al. New observations on the gastroesophageal antireflux barrier. Gastroenterol. Clin. North Am. 36(3), 601-617 (2007).
35. Hill LD, Kozarek RA, Kraemer SJ et al. The gastroesophageal flap valve: in vitro and in vivo observations. Gastrointest. Endosc. 44(5), 541-547 (1996).
36. Ingelfinger FJ. The sphincter that is a sphinx. N. Engl. J. Med. 284(19), 1095-1096 (1971).
37. Dent J, Dodds WJ, Friedman RH et al. Mechanism of gastroesophageal reflux in recumbent asymptomatic human subjects. J. Clin. Invest 65(2), 256-267 (1980).
38. Helm JF, Dodds WJ, Pelc LR et al. Effect of esophageal emptying and saliva on clearance of acid from the esophagus. N. Engl. J. Med. 310(5), 284-288 (1984).
39. Howden CW. Appropriate acid suppression in the treatment of acid-related conditions. Pharmacol. Ther. 63(1), 123-134 (1994).
40. Avidan B, Sonnenberg A, Schnell TG, Sontag SJ. Acid reflux is a poor predictor for severity of erosive reflux esophagitis. Dig. Dis. Sci. 47(11), 2565-2573 (2002).
41. Johnson DA, Fennerty MB. Heartburn severity underestimates erosive esophagitis severity in elderly patients with gastroesophageal reflux disease. Gastroenterology 126(3), 660-664 (2004).
42. Brandt MG, Darling GE, Miller L. Symptoms, acid exposure and motility in patients with Barrett's esophagus. Can. J. Surg. 47(1), 47-51 (2004).
43. Buckles DC, Sarosiek I, McMillin C, McCallum RW. Delayed gastric emptying in gastroesophageal reflux disease: reassessment with new methods and symptomatic correlations. Am. J. Med. Sci. 327(1), 1-4 (2004).
44. Holloway RH, Hongo M, Berger K, McCallum RW. Gastric distention: a mechanism for postprandial gastroesophageal reflux. Gastroenterology 89(4), 779-784 (1985).
45. Jones MP, Sloan SS, Rabine JC et al. Hiatal hernia size is the dominant determinant of esophagitis presence and severity in gastroesophageal reflux disease. Am. J. Gastroenterol. 96(6), 1711-1717 (2001).
46. Boesby S. Gastro-oesophageal sphincter pressure, motility and acid clearing. A study of hiatus hernia patients and normal subjects and of the effect of a modified belsey MK IV repair on the results of the manometric and acid-clearing tests. Scand. J. Gastroenterol. 12(4), 407-416 (1977).
47. Mittal RK, Lange RC, McCallum RW. Identification and mechanism of delayed esophageal acid clearance in subjects with hiatus hernia. Gastroenterology 92(1), 130-135 (1987).
48. Wu JC, Cheung CM, Wong VW, Sung JJ. Distinct clinical characteristics between patients with nonerosive reflux disease and those with reflux esophagitis. Clin. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 5(6), 690-695 (2007).
49. Katz PO. Review article: the role of non-acid reflux in gastro-oesophageal reflux disease. Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther. 14(12), 1539-1551 (2000).
50. Romero Y, Cameron AJ, Locke GR 3rd et al. Familial aggregation of gastroesophageal reflux in patients with Barrett's esophagus and esophageal adenocarcinoma. Gastroenterology 113(5), 1449-1456 (1997).
51. Mohammed I, Cherkas LF, Riley SA, Spector TD, Trudgill NJ. Genetic influences in gastro-oesophageal reflux disease: a twin study. Gut 52(8),1085-1089 (2003).
52. Cameron AJ, Lagergren J, Henriksson C et al. Gastroesophageal reflux disease in monozygotic and dizygotic twins. Gastroenterology 122(1), 55-59 (2002).
53. Nandurkar S, Talley NJ. Epidemiology and natural history of reflux disease. Baillieres Best Pract. Res. Clin. Gastroenterol. 14(5), 743-757 (2000).
54. Stein MR, Towner TG, Weber RW et al. The effect of theophylline on the lower esophageal sphincter pressure. Ann. Allergy, 45(4), 238-241 (1980).
55. Crowell MD, Zayat EN, Lacy BE, Schettler-Duncan A, Liu MC. The effects of an inhaled β2-adrenergic agonist on lower esophageal function: a dose-response study. Chest 120(4), 1184-1189 (2001).
56. DiMarino AJ Jr, Cohen S. Effect of an oral β2-adrenergic agonist on lower esophageal sphincter pressure in normals and in patients with achalasia. Dig. Dis. Sci. 27(12), 1063-1066 (1982).
57. Sifrim D, Holloway RH, Tack J et al. Effect of sumatriptan, a 5HT1 agonist, on the frequency of transient lower esophageal sphincter relaxations and gastroesophageal reflux in healthy subjects. Am. J. Gastroenterol. 94(11), 3158-3164 (1999).
58. Ishikawa H, Iwakiri K, Sugiura T, Kobayashi M. Effect of nifedipine administration (10 mg) on esophageal acid exposure time. J. Gastroenterol. 35(1), 43-46 (2000).
59. Kikendall JW, Mellow MH. Effect of sublingual nitroglycerin and long-acting nitrate preparations on esophagral motility. Gastroenterology 79(4), 703-706 (1980).
60. Rushnak MJ, Leevy CM. Effect of diazepam on the lower esophageal sphincter. A double-blind controlled study. Am. J. Gastroenterol. 73(2), 127-130 (1980).
61. Nilsson M, Lundegardh G, Carling L, Ye W, Lagergren J. Body mass and reflux oesophagitis: an oestrogen-dependent association? Scand. J. Gastroenterol. 37(6), 626-630 (2002).
62. Nilsson M, Johnsen R, Ye W, Hveem K, Lagergren J. Obesity and estrogen as risk factors for gastroesophageal reflux symptoms. JAMA 290(1), 66-72 (2003).
63. Wu AH, Tseng CC, Bernstein L. Hiatal hernia, reflux symptoms, body size, and risk of esophageal and gastric adenocarcinoma. Cancer 98(5), 940-948 (2003).
64. Sanders KM, Ward SM. Nitric oxide as a mediator of nonadrenergic noncholinergic neurotransmission. Am. J. Physiol. 262(3 Pt 1), G379-G392 (1992).
65. Hirsch DP, Holloway RH, Tytgat GN, Boeckxstaens GE. Involvement of nitric oxide in human transient lower esophageal sphincter relaxations and esophageal primary peristalsis. Gastroenterology 115(6), 1374-1380 (1998).
66. Weiner CP, Lizasoain I, Baylis SA et al. Induction of calcium-dependent nitric oxide synthases by sex hormones. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 91(11), 5212-5216 (1994).
67. Piccinini F, Rovati L, Zanni A et al. Indirect evidence that estrogen replacement therapy stimulates nitric oxide synthase in postmenopausal women. Gynecol. Endocrinol. 14(2), 142-146 (2000).
68. Van Thiel DH, Gavaler JS, Stremple J. Lower esophageal sphincter pressure in women using sequential oral contraceptives. Gastroenterology 71(2), 232-234 (1976).
69. Richter JE. Gastroesophageal reflux disease during pregnancy. Gastroenterol. Clin. North Am. 32(1), 235-261 (2003).
70. Olans LB, Wolf JL. Gastroesophageal reflux in pregnancy. Gastrointest. Endosc. Clin. N. Am. 4(4), 699-712 (1994).
71. Torbey CF, Richter JE. Gastrointestinal motility disorders in pregnancy. Semin. Gastrointest. Dis. 6(4), 203-216 (1995).
72. Rey E, Rodriguez-Artalejo F, Herraiz MA et al. Gastroesophageal reflux symptoms during and after pregnancy: a longitudinal study. Am. J. Gastroenterol. 102(11), 2395-2400 (2007).
73. Fisher RS, Roberts GS, Grabowski CJ, Cohen S. Inhibition of lower esophageal sphincter circular muscle by female sex hormones. Am. J. Physiol. 234(3), E243-E247 (1978).
74. Fisher RS, Roberts GS, Grabowski CJ, Cohen S. Altered lower esophageal sphincter function during early pregnancy. Gastroenterology 74(6), 1233-1237 (1978).
75. Van Thiel DH, Wald A. Evidence refuting a role for increased abdominal pressure in the pathogenesis of the heartburn associated with pregnancy. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 140(4), 420-422 (1981).
76. Ye W, Held M, Lagergren J et al. Helicobacter pylori infection and gastric atrophy: risk of adenocarcinoma and squamous-cell carcinoma of the esophagus and adenocarcinoma of the gastric cardia. J. Natl Cancer Inst. 96(5), 388-396 (2004).
77. Wa JC, Sung JJ, Ng EK et al. Prevalence and distribution of Helicobacter pylori in gastroesophageal reflux disease: a study from the East. Am. J. Gastroenterol. 94(7), 1790-1794 (1999).
78. Newton M, Bryan R, Burnham WR, Karnm MA. Evaluation of Helicobacter pylori in reflux oesophagitis and Barrett's oesophagus. Gut 40(1), 9-13 (1997).
79. Nordenstedt H, Nilsson M, Johnsen R, Lagergren J, Hveem K. Helicobacter pylori infection and gastroesophageal reflux in a population-based study (The HUNT Study). Helicobacter 12(1), 16-22 (2007).
80. Naylor GM, Gotoda T, Dixon M et al. Why does Japan have a high incidence of gastric cancer? Comparison of gastritis between UK and Japanese patients. Gut 55(11), 1545-1552 (2006).
81. El-Serag HB, Sonnenberg A, Jamal MM et al. Corpus gastritis is protective against reflux oesophagitis. Gut 45(2), 181-185 (1999).
82. Wu JC, Chan FK, Ching JY et al. Effect of Helicobacter pylori eradication on treatment of gastro-oesophageal reflux disease: a double blind, placebo controlled, randomised trial. Gut 53(2), 174-179 (2004).
83. Kuipers EJ, Nelis GF, Klinkenberg-Knol EC et al. Cure of Helicobacter pylori infection in patients with reflux oesophagitis treated with long term omeprazole reverses gastritis without exacerbation of reflux disease: results of a randomised controlled trial. Gut 53(1), 12-20 (2004).
84. Raghunath AS, Hungin AP, Wooff D, Childs S. Systematic review: the effect of Helicobacter pylori and its eradication on gastro-oesophageal reflux disease in patients with duodenal ulcers or reflux oesophagitis. Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther. 20(7), 733-744 (2004).
85. WHO/NUT/NCD. Obesity: Preventing and Managing the Global Epidemic. Report of a WHO Consultation on Obesity. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland (2000)
86. Jacobson BC, Somers SC, Fuchs CS, Kelly CP, Camargo CA Jr. Body-mass index and symptoms of gastroesophageal reflux in women. N. Engl. J. Med. 354(22), 2340-2348 (2006).
87. Hampel H, Abraham NS, El-Serag HB. Meta-analysis: obesity and the risk for gastroesophageal reflux disease and its complications. Ann. Intern. Med. 143(3), 199-211 (2005).
88. Pandolfino JE, El-Serag HB, Zhang Q et al. Obesity: a challenge to esophagogastric junction integrity. Gastroenterology 130(3), 639-649 (2006).
89. Barak N, Ehrenpreis ED, Harrison JR, Sitrin MD. Gastro-oesophageal reflux disease in obesity: pathophysiological and therapeutic considerations. Obes. Rev. 3(1), 9-15 (2002).
90. Day JP, Richter JE. Medical and surgical conditions predisposing to gastroesophageal reflux disease. Gastroenterol. Clin. North Am. 19(3), 587-607 (1990).
91. Maddox A, Horowitz M, Wishart J, Collins P. Gastric and oesophageal emptying in obesity. Scand. J. Gastroenterol. 24(5), 593-598 (1989).
92. Wu JC, Mui LM, Cheung CM, Chan Y, Sung JJ. Obesity is associated with increased transient lower esophageal sphincter relaxation. Gastroenterology 132(3), 883-889 (2007).
93. Dixon JB, O'Brien PE. Gastroesophageal reflux in obesity: the effect of lap-band placement. Obes. Surg. 9(6), 527-531 (1999).
94. Ruhl CE, Everhart JE. Overweight, but not high dietary fat intake, increases risk of gastroesophageal reflux disease hospitalization: the NHANES I Epidemiologic Followup Study. First National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Ann. Epidemiol. 9(7), 424-435 (1999).
95. Nilsson M, Johnsen R, Ye W, Hveem K, Lagergren J. Lifestyle related risk factors in the aetiology of gastro-oesophageal reflux. Gut 53(12), 1730-1735 (2004).
96. Zheng Z, Nordenstedt H, Pedersen NL, Lagergren J, Ye W. Lifestyle factors and risk for symptomatic gastroesophageal reflux in monozygotic twins. Gastroenterology 132(1), 87-95 (2007).
97. Stanciu C, Bennett JR. Smoking and gastro-oesophageal reflux. Br. Med. J. 3(5830), 793-795 (1972).
98. Kahrilas PJ, Gupta RR. Mechanisms of acid reflux associated with cigarette smoking. Gut 31(1), 4-10 (1990).
99. Sontag SJ, Schnell TG, Miller TQ et al. The importance of hiatal hernia in reflux esophagitis compared with lower esophageal sphincter pressure or smoking. J. Clin. Gastroenterol. 13(6), 628-643 (1991).
100. Kadakia SC, Kikendall JW, Maydonovitch C, Johnson LF. Effect of cigarette smoking on gastroesophageal reflux measured by 24-h ambulatory esophageal PH monitoring. Am. J. Gastroenterol. 90(10), 1785-1790 (1995).
101. Trudgill NJ, Smith LF, Kershaw J, Riley SA. Impact of smoking cessation on salivary function in healthy volunteers. Scand. J. Gastroenterol. 33(6), 568-571 (1998).
102. Bujanda L. The effects of alcohol consumption upon the gastrointestinal tract. Am. J. Gastroenterol. 95 (12), 3374-3382 (2000).
103. Kaufman SE, Kaye MD. Induction of gastro-oesophageal reflux by alcohol. Gut 19(4), 336-338 (1978).
104. Mayer EM, Grabowski CJ, Fisher RS. Effects of graded doses of alcohol upon esophageal motor function. Gastroenterology 75 (6), 1133-1136 (1978).
105. Bor S, Bor-Caymaz C, Tobey NA, Abdulnour-Nakhoul S, Orlando RC. Esophageal exposure to ethanol increases risk of acid damage in rabbit esophagus. Dig. Dis. Sci. 44(2), 290-300 (1999).
106. Locke GR 3rd, Talley NJ, Fett SL, Zinsmeister AR, Melton LJ 3rd. Risk factors associated with symptoms of gastroesophageal reflux. Am. J. Med. 106(6), 642-649 (1999).
107. Nocon M, Labenz J, Willich SN. Lifestyle factors and symptoms of gastro-oesophageal reflux - a population-based study. Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther. 23(1), 169-174 (2006).
108. Nandurkar S, Locke GR 3rd, Fett S et al. Relationship between body mass index, diet, exercise and gastro-oesophageal reflux symptoms in a community. Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther. 20(5), 497-505 (2004).
109. Allen ML, Mellow MH, Robinson MG, Orr WC. The effect of raw onions on acid reflux and reflux symptoms. Am. J. Gastroenterol. 85(4), 377-380 (1990).
110. Feldman M, Barnett C. Relationships between the acidity and osmolality of popular beverages and reported postprandial heartburn. Gastroenterology 108(1), 125-131 (1995).
111. Hills JM, Aaronson PI. The mechanism of action of peppermint oil on gastrointestinal smooth muscle. An analysis using patch clamp electrophysiology and isolated tissue pharmacology in rabbit and guinea pig. Gastroenterology 101(1), 55-65 (1991).
112. Becker DJ, Sinclair J, Castell DO, Wu WC. A comparison of high and low fat meals on postprandial esophageal acid exposure. Am. J. Gastroenterol. 84(7), 782-786 (1989).
113. El-Serag HB, Satia JA, Rabeneck L. Dietary- in take and the risk of gastro-oesophageal reflux disease: a cross sectional study in volunteers. Gut 54(1), 11-17 (2005).
114. Kay L, Jorgenseh T. Epidemiology of upper dyspepsia in a random population. Prevalence, incidence, natural history, and risk factors. Scand. J. Gastroenterol. 29(1), 2-6 (1994).
115. Chang CS, Poon SK, Lien HC, Chen GH. The incidence of reflux esophagitis among the Chinese. Am. J. Gastroenterol. 92(4), 668-671 (1997).
116. Parmelee-Peters K, Moeller JL. Gastroesophageal reflux in athletes. Curr. Sports Med. Rep. 3(2), 107-111 (2004).
117. Pandolfino JE, Bianchi LK, Lee TJ, Hirano I, Kahrilas PJ. Esophagogastric junction morphology predicts susceptibility to exercise-induced reflux. Am. J. Gastroenterol. 99(8), 1430-1436 (2004).
118. Piesman M, Hwang I, Maydonovitch C, Wong RK. Nocturnal reflux episodes following the administration of a standardized meal. Does timing matter? Am. J. Gastroenterol. 102(10), 2128-2134 (2007).
119. Kaltenbach T, Crockett S, Gerson LB. Are lifestyle measures effective in patients with gastroesophageal reflux disease? An evidence-based approach. Arch Intern. Med. 166(9), 965-971 (2006).
120. Jansson C, Nordenstedt H, Johansson S et al. Relation between gastroesophageal reflux symptoms and socioeconomic factors: a population-based study (the HUNT study). Clin. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 5(9), 1029-1034 (2007).
121. Kamolz T, Velanovich V. Psychological and emotional aspects of gastroesophageal reflux disease. Dis. Esophagus 15(3), 199-203 (2002).
122. Bradley LA, Richter JE, Pulliam TJ et al. The relationship between stress and symptoms of gastroesophageal reflux: the influence of psychological factors. Am. J. Gastroenterol. 88(1), 11-19 (1993).
123. Johnston BT, Lewis SA, Love AH. Psychological factors in gastro-oesophageal reflux disease. Gut 36(4), 481-482 (1995).
124. Walker EA, Katon WJ, Jemelka RP, Roy-Bryne PP. Comorbidity of gastrointestinal complaints, depression, and anxiety in the Epidemiologic Catchment Area (ECA) Study. Am. J. Med. 92(1A), S26-S30 (1992).
125. Jansson C, Nordenstedt H, Wallander MA et al. Severe gastro-oesophageal reflux symptoms in relation to anxiety, depression and coping in a population-based study. Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther. 26(5), 683-691 (2007).
126. Irwin RS, Curley FJ, French CL. Chronic cough. The spectrum and frequency of causes, key components of the diagnostic evaluation, and outcome of specific therapy. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 141(3), 640-647 (1990).
127. McGarvey LP, Heaney LG, Lawson JT et al. Evaluation and outcome of patients with chronic non-productive cough using a comprehensive diagnostic protocol. Thorax 53(9), 738-743 (1998).
128. Palombini BC, Villanova CA, Araujo E et al. A pathogenic triad in chronic cough: asthma, postnasal drip syndrome, and gastroesophageal reflux disease. Chest 116(2), 279-284 (1999).
129. Kiljander TO, Salomaa ER, Hietanen EK, Terho EO. Gastroesophageal reflux in asthmatics: A double-blind, placebo-controlled crossover study with omeprazole. Chest 116(5), 1257-1264 (1999).
130. Sontag SJ, O'Connell S, Khandelwal S et al. Most asthmatics have gastroesophageal reflux with or without bronchodilator therapy. Gastroenterology 99(3), 613-620 (1990).
131. Vincent D, Cohen-Jonathan AM, Leport J et al. Gastro-oesophageal reflux prevalence and relationship with bronchial reactivity in asthma. Eur. Respir. J. 10(10), 2255-2259 (1997).
132. Nagel RA, Brown P, Perks WH, Wilson RS, Kerr GD. Ambulatory pH monitoring of gastro-oesophageal reflux in "morning dipper" asthmatics. BMJ 297(6660), 1371-1373 (1988).
133. el-Serag HB, Sonnenberg A. Comorbid occurrence of laryngeal or pulmonary disease with esophagitis in United States military veterans. Gastroenterologu 113(3), 755-760 (1997).
134. Moote DW, Lloyd DA, McCourtie DR, Wells CA. Increase in gastroesophageal reflux during methacholine-induced bronchospasm. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 78(4 Pt 1), 619-623 (1986).
135. Lagergren J, Bergstrom R, Adami HO, Nyren O. Association between medications that relax the lower esophageal sphincter and risk for esophageal adenocarcinoma. Ann. Intern. Med. 133(3), 165-175 (2000).
136. Harding SM. Gastroesophageal reflux, asthma, and mechanisms of interaction. Am. J. Med. 111 (Suppl. 8A), S8-S12 (2001).
137. Avidan B, Sonnenberg A, Schnell TG, Sontag SJ. Temporal associations between coughing or wheezing and acid reflux in asthmatics. Gut 49(6), 767-772 (2001).
138. Harding SM, Richter JE, Guzzo MR et al. Asthma and gastroesophageal reflux: acid suppressive therapy improves asthma outcome. Am. J. Med. 100(4), 395-405 (1996).
139. Field SK, Gelfand GA, McFadden SD. The effects of antireflux surgery on asthmatics with gastroesophageal reflux. Chest 116(3), 766-774 (1999).
140. Chang AB, Lasserson TJ, Gaffney J, Connor FL, Garske LA. Gastro-oesophageal reflux treatment for prolonged non-specific cough in children and adults. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 4, CD004823 (2006).
141. Chandra KM, Harding SM. Therapy Insight: treatment of gastroesophageal reflux in adults with chronic cough. Nat. Clin. Pract. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 4(11), 604-613 (2007).
142. Irwin RS. Chronic cough due to gastroesophageal reflux disease: ACCP evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest 129(1 Suppl.), S80-S94 (2006).
143. Poe RH, Kallay MC. Chronic cough and gastroesophageal reflux disease: experience with specific therapy for diagnosis and treatment. Chest 123(3), 679-684 (2003).