Recognition of the international human right to health and health care in the United States

Rutgers Law Review

Volumn 60, Issue 2, 2008, Pages 335-379

  Kinney, Eleanor D ^a,b  

^a Department of Law ^*

^b INDIANA UNIVERSITY   (United States)

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EID: 48449104960     PISSN: 00360465     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (378)

1. Universal Declaration of Human Rights, G.A. Res. 217A (III), U.N. GAOR, 3d Sess., 1st plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. A/810 (Dec. 10, 1948) [hereinafter UDHR].
2. See generally MARY ANN GLENDON, A WORLD MADE NEW: ELEANOR ROOSEVELT AND THE UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS (2001); JOHANNES MORSINK, THE UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS: ORIGINS, DRAFTING, AND INTENT (1999).
3. UDHR, supra note 1, pmbl.
4. Id.
5. UDHR, supra note 1.
6. In 2001,1 published an article that was basically a summary of a lecture that I had given on the occasion of my becoming the Samuel R. Rosen Professor of Law. See Eleanor D. Kinney, The International Human Right to Health: What Does This Mean for Our Nation and World?, 34 IND. L. REV. 1457 (2001). This Article marks the beginning of my work on the international human right to health. In the present Article, I flesh out in much greater detail the ideas for implementing the international human right to health in the United States.
7. See generally DAVID P. FORSYTHE, THE INTERNATIONALIZATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS 55-86 (1991).
8. See History of WHO, http://www.who.int/about/history/en/index.html (last visited Feb. 25, 2008).
9. Constitution of the World Health Organization, pmbl., July 22, 1946, 62 Stat. 6349, 14 U.N.T.S. 185,
10. reprinted in 15 DEP'T ST. BULL. 211 (Aug. 4, 1946).
11. Id.
12. See UDHR, supra note 1, art. 25.
13. See id.
14. Id.
15. International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, opened for signature Dec. 19, 1966, 999 U.N.T.S. 171 (entered into force Mar. 23, 1976) [hereinafter ICCPR].
16. International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, opened for signature Dec. 16, 1966, 993 U.N.T.S. 3 (entered into force Jan. 3, 1976) [hereinafter ICESCR].
17. MATTHEW C. R. CRAVEN, THE INTERNATIONAL COVENANT ON ECONOMIC, SOCIAL, AND CULTURAL RIGHTS: A PERSPECTIVE ON ITS DEVELOPMENT l (1995). See generally The Limburg Principles on the Implementation of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1987/17,
18. reprinted in Symposium, The Implementation of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, 9 HUM. RTS. Q. 122 (1987).
19. See generally CRAVEN, supra note 17;
20. Philip Alston & Gerard Quinn, The Nature and Scope of States Parties' Obligations Under the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, 9 HUM. RTS. Q. 156 (1987).
21. ICCPR, supra note 15.
22. ICESCR, supra note 16, art. 27.
23. The U.N. Web site states: Despite significant progress since the establishment of the United Nations in addressing problems of human deprivation, well over 1 billion people live in circumstances of extreme poverty, homelessness, hunger and malnutrition, unemployment, illiteracy and chronic ill health. More than 1.5 billion people lack access to clean drinking-water and sanitation: some 500 million children don't have access to even primary education; and more than one billion adults cannot read and write. This massive scale of marginalization, in spite of continued global economic growth and development, raises serious questions, not only in relation to development, but also in relation to basic human rights. International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights: Objectives, http://untreaty.un.org/English/ millennium/law/iv-3.htm (last visited Feb. 28, 2008).
24. ICESCR, supra note 16, art. 12.
25. Id. Article 12 then enumerates several steps to be taken for "full realization" of this right. These steps include: (a) The provision for the reduction of the stillbirth-rate and of infant mortality and for the healthy development of the child; (b) The improvement of all aspects of environmental and industrial hygiene; (c) The prevention, treatment and control of epidemic, endemic, occupational and other diseases; (d) The creation of conditions which would assure to all medical service and medical attention in the event of sickness.
26. Id.
27. See, e.g., Aart Hendriks, The Right to Health in National and International Jurisprudence, 5 EUR. J. OF HEALTH L. 389 (1998);
28. Phillip Alston, Out of the Abyss: The Challenges Confronting the New U.N. Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, 9 HUM. RTS. Q. 332 (1987);
29. Alston & Quinn, supra note 18.
30. The Limburg Principles, supra note 17;
31. see Hendriks, supra note 24, at 393.
32. The Limburg Principles, supra note 17, at 123-25.
33. ICESCR, supra note 16, art. 2(1).
34. The Limburg Principles, supra note 17, at 125.
35. Id.
36. U.N. Econ. & Soc. Council, Comm. on Econ., Soc. & Cultural Rights, Substantive Issues Arising in the Implementation of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, General Comment 14, U.N. Doc. E/C. 12/2000/4 (Aug. 11, 2000) [hereinafter ICESCR General Comment 14].
37. See generally Asbjorn Eide, Economic, Social and Cultural Rights as Human Rights, in ECONOMIC, SOCIAL AND CULTURAL RIGHTS 21 (Asbjom Eide, Catarina Krause & Allan Rosas eds., 1995);
38. Hendriks, supra note 24.
39. ICESCR General Comment 14, supra note 30,1 33.
40. Id.
41. Id.
42. Id. ¶ 53.
43. Id.
44. Id.
45. Id. ¶ 55.
46. Id. ¶ 47.
47. Id. ¶ 50.
48. Id. ¶ 51.
49. Id. ¶ 52.
50. Id. ¶ 59.
51. International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, opened for signature Mar. 7, 1966, 660 U.N.T.S. 195 (entered into force Jan. 4, 1969).
52. See generally Egon Schwelb, The International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, 15 INT'L & COMP. L.Q. 996 (1966).
53. Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women, opened for signature Mar. 1, 1980, 1249 U.N.T.S. 13 (entered into force Sept. 3, 1981).
54. Convention on the Rights of the Child, opened for signature Nov. 20, 1989, 1577 U.N.T.S. 3(entered into force Sept. 2, 1990).
55. See generally Susan Kilbourne, U.S. Failure to Ratify the U.N. Convention on the Rights of the Child: Playing Politics with Children's Rights, 6 TRANSNATL L. & CONTEMP. PROBS. 437 (1996);
56. Alison Dundes Renteln, Who's Afraid of the CRC: Objections to the Convention on the Rights of the Child, 3 ILSAJ. INT'L & COMP. L. 629 (1997).
57. Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Against Women, supra note 45, art. 12 ("States parties shall ensure to women appropriate services in connexion with pregnancy. . . and the post-natal period. . . as well as adequate nutrition during pregnancy and lactation.").
58. U.N. Econ. & Soc. Council, Comm. on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women, Report of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women, General Recommendation 24, ¶ 1, U.N. Doc. A/54/38/Rev.1 (Feb. 5, 1999) ("reproductive health ... is a basic right").
59. Id.
60. See Convention on the Rights of the Child, supra note 46.
61. Id. art. 24.1.
62. Id. art. 24.2.
63. Id. art. 24.3.
64. Id. art. 23.
65. American Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Man, O.A.S. res. XXX (1948), reprinted in ORGANIZATION OF AMERICAN STATES, BASIC DOCUMENTS PERTAINING TO HUMAN RIGHTS IN THE INTER-AMERICAN SYSTEM 17-24 (1988).
66. Organization of American States, American Convention on Human Rights, Nov. 22, 1969, O.A.S.T.S. No. 36, 1144 U.N.T.S. 123, reprinted in ORGANIZATION OF AMERICAN STATES, supra note 55, at 25-54.
67. American Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Man, supra note 55, art. 11.
68. Additional Protocol to the American Convention on Human Rights in the Area of Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, art. 10, Nov. 14, 1988, O.A.S. T.S. 69, reprinted in THE INTER-AMERICAN SYSTEM OF HUMAN RIGHTS 497-505 (David J. Harris & Stephen Livingstone eds., 1998)
69. [hereinafter Protocol of San Salvador];
70. see also SCOTT DAVIDSON, THE INTER-AMERICAN HUMAN RIGHTS SYSTEM 33 (1997).
71. Protocol of San Salvador, supra note 58, art. 10.
72. Id.
73. See FORSYTHE, supra note 8, at 121-27.
74. Id. at 122-27.
75. See Robert Traer, U.S. Ratification of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, in PROMISES TO KEEP: PROSPECTS FOR HUMAN RIGHTS 1, 3-5 (Charles S. McCoy ed., 2002).
76. See id.
77. See id. at 4.
78. See Daniel Callahan, What is the Reasonable Demand on Health Care Resources? Designing a Basic Package of Benefits, 8 J. CONTEMP. HEALTH L. & POL'Y 1, 3 (1992).
79. See 90 CONG. REC. 1, 55, 57 (1944) [hereinafter Roosevelt's Message],
80. See id. at 55-57.
81. Social Security Act of 1935, Pub. L. No. 74-271, 49 Stat. 620 (codified as amended at 42 U.S.C. §§ 301-302 (2006)).
82. Social Security Amendments of 1960, Pub. L. No. 86-778, 74 Stat. 924, 987 (codified as amended at 42 U.S.C. § 301 (2006)).
83. Social Security Amendments of 1965, Pub. L. No. 89-97, § 102(a), 79 Stat. 291 (codified as amended at 42 U.S.C. § 1395 (2006)) (Medicare); id. § 121(a), 79 Stat. 343 (codified as amended at 42 U.S.C. § 1396 (2006)) (Medicaid).
84. See Press Conference of Franklin D. Roosevelt (July 15, 1940), in THE PUBLIC PAPERS AND ADDRESSES OF FRANKLIN D. ROOSEVELT: WAR AND AID TO DEMOCRACIES, 1940-1941, at 284-85 (Samuel I. Rosenman ed., 1940);
85. see also Roosevelt's Message, supra note 67, at 57 (referring to expanding set of basic rights for Americans, including the right to protection from economic fears associated with aging, health, and subsistence);
86. CRAVEN, supra note 17, at 8 n.16.
87. Roosevelt's Message, supra note 67, at 57.
88. Id.
89. Id.
90. See GLENDON, supra note 2, at 4-5.
91. See id. at 33.
92. See UNITED NATIONS EDUCATIONAL, SCIENTIFIC AND CULTURAL ORGANIZATION (UNESCO), HUMAN RIGHTS: COMMENTS AND INTERPRETATIONS (1973) (reporting the philosophical underpinnings for human rights in world thought).
93. See generally GLENDON, supra note 2, at 73-78 (discussing how the UNESCO philosophers' committee analyzed human rights using diverse religious and political approaches).
94. See GLENDON, supra note 2, at 169-71.
95. See id. at 163.
96. See Traer, supra note 63, at 3.
97. Louis Henkin, Editorial Comments - U.S. Ratification of Human Rights Conventions: The Ghost of Senator Bricker, 89 AM. J. INT'L. 341, 347 (1995);
98. see also Traer, supra note 63, at 4.
99. See Traer, supra note 63, at 3-4.
100. See FORSYTHE, supra note 8, at 122-24.
101. President's Message to Congress Transmitting Four Treaties Pertaining to Human Rights, S. Exec. Docs. C, D, E and F, 95th Cong., 2d Sess., at III (1978);
102. see also Jimmy Carter, The American Road to a Human Rights Policy, in REALIZING HUMAN RIGHTS: MOVING FROM INSPIRATION TO IMPACT 49, 53-56 (Samantha Power & Graham Allison eds., 2000).
103. 138 CONG. REC. S4781-84 (daily ed. Apr. 2, 1992);
104. White House Statement on Signing the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, 29 WEEKLY COMP. PRES. DOC 1008 (June 5, 1992);
105. see S. COMM. ON FOREIGN RELATIONS, INTERNATIONAL COVENANT ON CIVIL AND POLICY RIGHTS, S. EXEC. REP. NO. 102-23 (1992),
106. as reprinted in 31 I.L.M. 645 (1992);
107. see also David P. Stewart, United States Ratification of the Covenant on Civil and Political Rights: The Significance of the Reservations, Understandings, and Declarations, 42 DEPAUL L. REV. 1183, 1183-85 (1993).
108. See PAULA DOBRIANSKY, U.S. DEP'T OF STATE, CURRENT POLICY NO. 1091, U.S. HUMAN RIGHTS POLICY: AN OVERVIEW l (1988);
109. see also Steven D. Jamar, The International Human Right to Health, 22 S.U. L. REV. 1, 8-10 (1994).
110. See Andrew Reding, Counterpoint: Clinton is Right on International Human Rights, WALL ST. J., July 15, 1993, at A13.
111. See Social Security Act of 1935, Pub. L. No. 74-271, 49 Stat. 620 (codified as amended at 42 U.S.C. §§ 301-302 (2006)).
112. Id.
113. See Edgar Sydenstricker, Public Health Provisions of the Social Security Act, 3 LAW & CONTEMP. PROBS. 263, 263-64 (1936).
114. See U.S. Dep't of Health & Human Servs., History of Medicare and Medicaid, http://www.cms.hhs.gov/history (last visited Jan. 12, 2008).
115. See Social Security Amendments of 1965, Pub. L. No. 89-97, § 102(a), 79 Stat. 291 (codified as amended at 42 U.S.C. § 1395 (2006));
116. id. § 121(a), 79 Stat. 343 (codified as amended at 42 U.S.C. § 1396 (2006)).
117. See SUBCOMM. ON HEALTH OF THE H. COMM. ON WAYS AND MEANS, 94TH CONG., NATIONAL HEALTH INSURANCE RESOURCE BOOK 457 (Comm. Print 1976).
118. See generally KAREN DAVIS, NATIONAL HEALTH INSURANCE: BENEFITS, COSTS, AND CONSEQUENCES (1975).
119. See AM. ENTERPRISE INST, FOR PUB. POL'Y RES., NATIONAL HEALTH INSURANCE: WHAT NOW, WHAT LATER, WHAT NEVER (Mark V. Pauly ed., 1980);
120. see also ALAIN C. ENTHOVEN, HEALTH PLAN: THE ONLY PRACTICAL SOLUTION TO THE SOARING COST OF MEDICAL CARE 70 (1980).
121. See President Clinton's Remarks on 'Presenting Proposed Health Care Reform Legislation to the Congress, 2 PUB. PAPERS 1830, 1831 (Oct. 27, 1993)
122. [hereinafter Clinton's Remarks].
123. See Eleanor D. Kinney, Protecting Consumers and Providers Under Health Reform: An Overview of the Major Administrative Law Issues, 5 HEALTH MATRIX 83, 83-86 (1995).
124. See Health Security Act, H.R. 3600, 103d Cong. §§ 5201-5243 (1st Sess. 1994).
125. See Mark A. Hall, MAKING MEDICAL SPENDING DECISIONS: THE LAW, ETHICS, AND ECONOMICS OF RATIONING MECHANISMS 247 (1997).
126. See ELEANOR D. KINNEY, PROTECTING AMERICAN HEALTH CARE CONSUMERS chs. 1-2 (2002).
127. See JILL A. MARSTELLER & RANDALL R. BOVBJERG, FEDERALISM AND PATIENT PROTECTION: CHANGING ROLES FOR STATE AND FEDERAL GOVERNMENT (1999);
128. Frank A. Sloan & Mark A. Hall, Market Failures and the Evolution of State Regulation of Managed Care, LAW & CONTEMP. PROBS, Autumn 2002, at 169.
129. See, e.g., DAVID G. SMITH, ENTITLEMENT POLITICS: MEDICARE AND MEDICAID 1995-2001, at 155-57 (2002).
130. See, e.g., TOM L. BEAUCHAMP & JAMES F. CHILDRESS, PRINCIPLES OF BIOMEDICAL ETHICS (4th ed. 1994);
131. NORMAN DANIELS ET AL., BENCHMARKS OF FAIRNESS FOR HEALTH CARE REFORM (1996);
132. NORMAN DANIELS, JUST HEALTH CARE (1985);
133. LARRY PALMER, LAW, MEDICINE AND SOCIAL JUSTICE (1989);
134. JUSTICE AND HEALTH CARE (Earl E. Shelp ed., 1981)';
135. Tom L. Beauchamp & Ruth R. Faden, The Right to Health and the Right to Health Care, 4 J. MED. & PHIL. 118 (1979);
136. Norman Daniels, Health-Care Needs and Distributive Justice, 10 PHIL. & PUB. AFF. 146 (1981);
137. Norman Daniels, Rights to Health Care and Distributive Justice: Programmatic Worries, 4 J. MED. & PHIL. 174 (1979);
138. Charles Fried, Rights and Health Care-Beyond Equity and Efficiency, NEW. ENG. J. MED., July 31, 1975, at 241.
139. Pub. L. 95-622, tit. Ill, § 301, 92 Stat. 3437 (1978) (codified as amended at 42 U.S.C. 300v (2006)).
140. SEE PRESIDENT'S COMM'N FOR THE STUDY OF ETHICAL PROBS. IN MED. & BIOMED. AND BEHAV. RES., SECURING ACCESS TO HEALTH CARE: A REPORT ON THE ETHICAL IMPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENCES IN THE AVAILABILITY OF HEALTH SERVICES (1983).
141. 42 U.S.C. § 300v-1(a)(1)(D) (2006).
142. PRESIDENT'S COMM'N, supra note 105, vol. I, at 32.
143. Id.
144. Id. vol. I, at 4.
145. Id.
146. Id.
147. See Clinton's Remarks, supra note 96;
148. see also Am. Med. Ass'n, Council on Ethical & Jud. Affs., Ethical Issues in Health System Reform: The Provision of Adequate Health Care, 272 J. AM. MED. ASS'N 1056 (1994)
149. [hereinafter Ethical Issues in Health System Reform];
150. Ronald Dworkin, Will Clinton's Plan be Fair?, N.Y. REV. BOOKS, Jan. 13, 1994, at 20.
151. See HEALTH CARE REFORM: A HUMAN RIGHTS APPROACH (Audrey R. Chapman ed., 1994).
152. SEE PRESIDENT'S ADVISORY COMM'N ON CONSUMER PROTECTION & QUALITY IN THE HEALTH CARE INDUSTRY, CONSUMER BILL OF RIGHTS AND RESPONSIBILITIES (1997);
153. see also PRESIDENT'S ADVISORY COMM'N ON CONSUMER PROTECTION & QUALITY IN THE HEALTH CARE INDUSTRY, QUALITY FIRST: BETTER HEALTH CARE FOR ALL AMERICANS (1998).
154. See, e.g., KLNNEY,
155. supra note 100;
156. MARC A. RODWIN, PROMOTING ACCOUNTABLE MANAGED HEALTH CARE: THE POTENTIAL ROLE FOR CONSUMER VOICE (2000);
157. George J. Annas, Patients' Rights in Managed Care - Exit, Voice, and Choice, 337 NEW ENG. J. MED. 210 (1997);
158. Eleanor D. Kinney, Tapping and Resolving Consumer Concerns About Health Care, 26 AM. J.L. & MED. 335 (2000);
159. Tracy E. Miller, Center Stage on the Patient Protection Agenda: Grievance and Appeal Rights, 26 J.L. MED. & ETHICS 89 (1998);
160. Marc A. Rodwin, Consumer Protection and Managed Care: The Need for Organized Consumers, 15 HEALTH AFF. 110, 110 (1996);
161. Walter A. Zelman, Consumer Protection in Managed Care: Finding the Balance, 16 HEALTH AFF. 158, 158 (1997).
162. See, e.g., George J. Annas, Human Rights and Health: The Universal Declaration of Human Rights at 50, 339 NEW. ENG. J. MED. 1778 (1998).
163. Consortium for Health & Hum. Rts., Health and Human Rights: A Call to Action on the 50th Anniversary of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 280 J. AM. MED. ASS'N 462, 464 (1998).
164. See, e.g., HEALTH CARE REFORM, supra note 113;
165. HEALTH AND HUMAN RIGHTS: A READER (Jonathan M. Mann et al. eds., 1999);
166. BRIGIT TOEBES, THE RIGHT TO HEALTH AS A HUMAN RIGHT IN INTERNATIONAL LAW (1999);
167. Paul Farmer & Nicole Gastineau, Rethinking Health and Human Rights: Time for a Paradigm Shift, 30 J.L. MED. & ETHICS 655 (2002);
168. Steven D. Jamar, The International Human Right to Health, 22 S.U. L. REV. 1 (1994);
169. Virginia A. Leary, The Right to Health in International Human Rights Law, 1 INT'L J. HEALTH & HUM. RTS. 25 (1994);
170. Stephen P. Marks, The Evolving Field of Health and Human Rights: Issues and Methods, 30 J.L. MED. & ETHICS 739 (2002);
171. Benjamin Mason Meier & Larisa M. Mori, The Highest Attainable Standard: Advancing a Collective Human Right to Public Health, 37 COLUM. HUM. RTS. L. REV. 101 (2005);
172. George P. Smith, II, Human Rights and Bioethics: Formulating a Universal Right to Health, Health Care, or Health Protection? 38 VAND. J. TRANSNAT'L L. 1295 (2005);
173. Brigit Toebes, Towards an Improved Understanding of the International Human Right to Health, 21 HUM. RTS. Q. 661 (1999).
174. See generally Symposium, Health, Law and Human Rights: Exploring the Connections, 30 J.L. MED. & ETHICS 490 (2002).
175. See Allen E. Buchanan, The Right to a Decent Minimum of Health Care, 13 PHIL. & PUB. AFF. 55 (1984);
176. Daniel Callahan, What Is a Reasonable Demand on Health Care Resources? Designing a Basic Package of Benefits, 8 J. CONTEMP. HEALTH L. & POL"Y 1 (1992);
177. Ethical Issues in Health Care System Reform, supra note 112.
178. See, e.g., DANIEL CALLAHAN, SETTING LIMITS: MEDICAL GOALS IN AN AGING SOCIETY (1987);
179. LARRY R. CHURCHILL, RATIONING HEALTH CARE IN AMERICA: PERCEPTIONS AND PRINCIPLES OF JUSTICE (1987);
180. VICTOR R. FUCHS, WHO SHALL LIVE?: HEALTH, ECONOMICS, AND SOCIAL CHOICE (1974);
181. HALL, supra note 99;
182. PAUL T. MENZEL, STRONG MEDICINE: THE ETHICAL RATIONING OF HEALTH CARE (1990);
183. Henry Aaron & William B. Schwartz, Rationing Health Care: The Choice Before Us, 247 SCIENCE 418 (1990);
184. Einer Elhauge, Allocating Health Care Morally, 82 CAL. L. REV. 1449 (1994);
185. Mark A. Hall, Rationing Health Care at the Bedside, 69 N.Y.U. L. REV. 693, 778 (1994);
186. Richard D. Lamm, Rationing of Health Care: Inevitable and Desirable, 140 U. PA. L. REV. 1511 (1992).
187. See Kenneth E. Thorpe, Curtis S. Florence & Peter Joski, Which Medical Conditions Account For The Rise In Health Care Spending?, HEALTH AFF. (Web Exclusive), August 25, 2004, at W4-440, http://content.healthaffairs.org/cgi/content/ abstract/hlthaff.w4.437.
188. Frances H. Miller, Patient Rights & Health Care Resources: Two Sides to An Irregular Coin, in RIGHTS AND RESOURCES (Francis H. Miller ed., 2002).
189. See LAWRENCE O. GOSTIN, PUBLIC HEALTH LAW: POWER, DUTY, RESTRAINT 2559 (2000);
190. see also Elizabeth Fee, Public Health and the State: The United States, in THE HISTORY OF PUBLIC HEALTH AND THE MODERN STATE 224, 227-28 (Dorothy Porter ed., 1994);
191. GEORGE ROSEN, A HISTORY OF PUBLIC HEALTH (1993).
192. See infra notes 135-42 and accompanying text.
193. See William J. Novak, The Legal Origins of the Modern American State, in LOOKING BACK AT LAW'S CENTURY 249 (Austin Sarat, Bryant Garth & Robert A. Kagan eds., 2002);
194. see also Glenn H. Reynolds & David B. Kopel, The Evolving Police Power: Some Observations for a New Century, 27 HASTINGS CONST. L.Q. 511, 511 (2000).
195. See supra note 126.
196. See Price v. Illinois, 238 U.S. 446, 453-55 (1915) (upholding state prohibition on sale of certain food preservatives to protect the public health);
197. New York ex rel. Lieberman v. Van de Carr, 199 U.S. 552, 563 (1905) (upholding the state prohibition on the sale of milk without a health board permit);
198. Cal. Reduction Co. v. Sanitary Reduction Works, 199 U.S. 306, 324-25 (1905) (upholding an ordinance requiring refuse to be cremated or destroyed at owner's expense);
199. Jacobson v. Massachusetts, 197 U.S. 11, 39 (1905) (upholding mandatory state vaccination statute).
200. 22 U.S. (9 Wheat.) 1, 203 (1824).
201. Kinney, supra note 6, at 1465-66.
202. Id. at 1465;
203. see also ALASKA CONST, art. VII, § 5 ("The legislature shall provide for public welfare.");
204. HAW. CONST, art. IX, § 1 ('The State shall provide for the protection and promotion of the public health.").
205. WYO. CONST, art. 7, § 20.
206. S.C. CONST, art. XII, § 1.
207. MONT. CONST, art. II, § 3 (emphasis added).
208. See U.S. CONST, pmbl;
209. id. art. I, § 8, cl. 1.
210. Id. art. 1, § 8, cl. 1.
211. 17 U.S. (4 Wheat.) 316 (1819).
212. Id. at 421.
213. U.S. CONST, art. 1, § 8, cl. 3.
214. See Memorandum from Walter Dellinger and H. Jefferson Powell, Department of Justice, to Attorney General Janet Reno and Associate Attorney General Webster L. Hubbell (Oct. 29, 1993), available at http://www.usdoj.gov/olc/lstlady.htm.
215. See Jesse H. Choper & John C. Yoo, The Scope of the Commerce Clause after Morrison, 25 OKLA. CITY U. L. REV. 843 (2000);
216. Larry D. Kramer, Putting the Politics Back into the Political Safeguards of Federalism, 100 COLUM. L. REV. 215 (2000);
217. Grant S. Nelson & Robert J. Pushaw, Jr., Rethinking the Commerce Clause: Applying First Principles to Uphold Federal Commercial Regulations but Preserve State Control Over Social Issues, 85 IOWA L. REV. 1 (1999);
218. John C. Yoo, The Judicial Safeguards of Federalism, 70 S. CAL. L. REV. 1311 (1997).
219. See United States v. Morrison, 529 U.S. 598, 626-27 (2000) (striking down the private civil remedy provision of the Violence Against Women Act of 1994, 42 U.S.C. § 13981, as having no national effects);
220. United States v. Lopez, 514 U.S. 549, 567 (1995) (holding that regulating the possession of guns in schools is outside the sphere of federal commerce power).
221. See infra notes 148-59, 176-85 and accompanying text.
222. See infra notes 187-89 and accompanying text.
223. CARMEN DENAVAS-WALT, BERNADETTE D. PROCTOR & JESSICA SMITH, U.S. CENSUS BUREAU, INCOME, POVERTY, AND HEALTH INSURANCE COVERAGE IN THE UNITED STATES: 2006, at 20 fig. 7 (2007).
224. Id.
225. Id.
226. See Social Security Amendments of 1965, Pub. L. No. 89-97, § 102(a), 79 Stat. 291 (codified as amended at 42 U.S.C. §1395 (2006));
227. id. §121(a), 79 Stat. 343 (codified as amended at 42 U.S.C. §1396 (2006)).
228. See Social Security Amendments of 1972, Pub. L. No. 92-603, §301, 86 Stat. 1471 (codified as amended at 42 U.S.C. §1382c (2006)).
229. 42 U.S.C. §1395c (2006).
230. See generally id. §§1395c to 1395i;
231. id. §§1395j to 1395w-4.
232. Id. §1395W-21.
233. Medicare Prescription Drug, Improvement, and Modernization Act of 2003 (MMA), Pub. L. No. 108-173, §101(a)(1), 17 Stat. 2071 (codified at 42 U.S.C. §1395w-101 (2006)).
234. See 42 U.S.C. §1396.
235. See id. §1396a.
236. See id.
237. State Children's Health Insurance Program, 42 U.S.C. §1397aa.
238. Id.
239. 38 U.S.C. §§1701-1784.
240. 42 U.S.C. §§300w to 300y-11.
241. Id. §§254b to 254c-1.
242. 432 U.S. 464 (1977).
243. Id. at 469;
244. see also Harris v. McRae, 448 U.S. 297, 309 (1980) (noting that Congress never intended "to require a participating state to assume the full costs of providing any health services in its Medicaid Plan").
245. BARRY R. FURROW ET AL., HEALTH LAW § 10-1 (1995).
246. 489 U.S. 189 (1989).
247. Id. at 196.
248. 397 U.S. 254 (1970).
249. Id. at 263-64.
250. See id. at 266;
251. see also Henry J. Friendly, Some Kind of Hearing, 123 U. PA. L. REV. 1267, 1268 (1975) (discussing the expanded use of hearings in various administrative areas after Goldberg);
252. Laurence H. Tribe, Structural Due Process, 10 HARV. C.R.-C.L. L. REV. 269, 269 (1975) (discussing constitutional limitations, like hearing requirements, on administrative actions);
253. JERRY L. MASHAW, DUE PROCESS IN THE ADMINISTRATIVE STATE 33 (1985) (discussing the impact of Goldberg's hearing requirement);
254. Charles H. Koch, ADMINISTRATIVE LAW AND PRACTICE §§ 2.23-.24 (2d ed. 1997);
255. Kenneth C. Davis & Richard J. Pierce, Jr., ADMINISTRATIVE LAW TREATISE § 9.5 (3d ed. 1994).
256. See generally Richard B. Stewart & Cass R. Sunstein, Public Programs and Private Rights, 95 HARV. L. REV. 1193 (1982);
257. Stephen F. Williams, Liberty and Property: The Problem of Government Benefits, 12 J. LEGAL STUD. 3 (1983);
258. Richard A. Epstein, No New Property, 56 BROOK. L. REV. 747 (1990).
259. See generally TIMOTHY STOLTZFUS JOST, DISENTITLEMENT? THE THREATS FACING OUR PUBLIC HEALTH-CARE PROGRAMS AND A RIGHTS-BASED RESPONSE 24-51 (2003);
260. SMITH, supra note 102;
261. Timothy Stoltzfus Jost, The Tenuous Nature of the Medicaid Entitlement, 22 HEALTH AFF. 145 (2003).
262. See, e.g., Colson v. Sillman, 35 F.3d 106 (2d Cir. 1994);
263. Wash. Legal Clinic for the Homeless v. Barry, 107 F.3d 32, 38 (D.C. Cir. 1997);
264. see also Sidney A. Shapiro & Richard E. Levy, Government Benefits and the Rule of Law: Toward a Standards-Based Theory of Due Process, 57 ADMIN. L. REV. 107 (2005);
265. Richard J. Pierce, Jr., The Due Process Counterrevolution of the 1990s?, 96 COLUM. L. REV. 1973 (1996).
266. See, e.g., Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996, Pub. L. No. 104-193, § 103(a)(1), 110 Stat. 2113 (codified at 42 U.S.C. § 601(b) (2006)) (welfare program);
267. Balanced Budget Act of 1997, Pub. L. No. 105-33, § 2102(b)(4), 111 Stat. 554 (codified at 42 U.S.C. § 1397bb(b)(4) (2006)) (State Children's Health Insurance Program).
268. CARMEN DENAVAS-WALT ET AL., supra note 145, at 20 fig.7.
269. Russell Korobkin, The Battle Over Self-Insured Health Plans, or "One Good Loophole Deserves Another", 5 YALE J. HEALTH POLY L. & ETHICS 89, 131 (2005) (noting that with the exception of Hawaii, no federal or state law requires employer-provided health coverage).
270. See I.R.C. § 162(a) (2006) (employer deduction);
271. id. § 106 (employer contributions to employee health plans).
272. See Paul v. Virginia, 75 U.S. 168, 184-85 (1868) (holding that the business of insurance was not in interstate commerce).
273. See KATHLEEN HEALD ETTLINGER ET AL., STATE INSURANCE REGULATION 129-63 (1995).
274. See NAT'L ASS'N INS. COMM'RS, COMPENDIUM OF STATE LAWS ON INSURANCE TOPICS: MANDATED BENEFITS (1995).
275. See Mark A. Hall, The Competitive Impact of Small Group Health Insurance Reform Laws, 32 U. MICH. J.L. REFORM 685, 691 (1999).
276. Employee Retirement Income Security Act of 1974, Pub. L. No. 93-406, 88 Stat. 829 (codified as amended in scattered sections of 15 U.S.C., 26 U.S.C., 29 U.S.C., 42 U.S.C. & 42 U.S.C).
277. See 29 U.S.C. § 1001(a)(2006).
278. See id. § 1132(a).
279. See McGann v. H. & H. Music Co., 946 F.2d 401, 408 (5th Cir. 1991) (upholding an employer's decisions to reduce lifetime benefits for employees after discovering they had an AIDS-related illness);
280. Am. Med. Sec., Inc. v. Bartlett, 111 F.3d 358, 365 (4th Cir. 1997) (rejecting the effort of Maryland's insurance regulators due to ERISA preemption to require employee welfare benefit plans that purchased state-regulated stop-loss insurance to comply with state-mandated benefit provisions for the primary plan).
281. See Consolidated Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1985, Pub. L. No. 99-272, § 10001, 100 Stat. 82, 222 (codified as amended at 26 U.S.C. § 162 (2006));
282. Mental Health Parity Act of 1996, Pub. L. No. 104-204, 110 Stat. 2944 (2006) (codified in scattered sections of 29 U.S.C. & 42 U.S.C.);
283. Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996, Pub. L. No. 104-191, 110 Stat. 1936 (codified in scattered sections of 26 U.S.C., 29 U.S.C. & 42 U.S.C.);
284. Newborns' and Mothers' Health Protection Act of 1996, Pub. L. No. 104-204, §§ 601-606, 110 Stat. 2874, 2935-44 (codified at 29 U.S.C. § 1185 (2006)).
285. See Lawrence O. Gostin, The Future of Public Health Law, 12 AM. J.L. & MED. 461 (1986).
286. Public Health Service Act, Pub. L. No. 78-410, 58 Stat. 682 (1944) (codified as amended at 42 U.S.C. §§201-300hh (2006)).
287. Eleanor D. Kinney, Administrative Law and the Public's Health, 30 J.L. MED. & ETHICS 212, 214-15 (2002).
288. See 42 U.S.C. § 2000a(a) (2006) (federal civil rights authorities);
289. AM. JUR. 2D Civil Rights §§ 223-231 (2000) (state civil rights authorities).
290. Rehabilitation Act of 1973, Pub. L. No. 93-112, § 504, 87 Stat. 355, 394 (codified at 29 U.S.C. § 794 (2006)).
291. Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, Pub. L. No. 101-336, 104 Stat. 327 (codified at 42 U.S.C. § 12101 (2006));
292. see also David Orentlicher, Destructuring Disability: Rationing of Health Care and Unfair Discrimination Against the Sick, 31 HARV. C.R.-C.L. L. REV. 49 (1996);
293. Philip G. Peters, Jr., Health Care Rationing and Disability Rights, 70 IND. L.J. 491 (1995).
294. 42 U.S.C. § 300o (repealed 1979); 42 C.F.R. § 124, subpt. G (2002).
295. AM. JUR. 2D Civil Rights §§ 223-231 (2000) (state civil rights authorities).
296. See Helen Watchirs, Review of Methodologies Measuring Human Rights Implementation, 30 J.L. MED. & ETHICS 716 (2002).
297. U.N. DEV. PROGRAMME (UNDP), HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2000, at 89 (2000), http://hdr.undp.org/en/ media/hdr_2000_en.pdf.
298. See supra note 7 and accompanying text.
299. See supra note 7 and accompanying text.
300. Eleanor D. Kinney & Brian A. Clark, Provisions for Health and Health Care in the Constitutions of the Countries of the World, 37 CORNELL INT'L L.J. 285, 297-98, 298 tbl.2 (2004).
301. Id. at 298 tbl.2.
302. Id. at 297 fig.3.
303. See supra Part III.B.2.
304. See supra notes 130-34 and accompanying text.
305. Kinney & Clark, supra note 198, at 291.
306. Id. at 294.
307. Id. at 295 fig.2.
308. See supra notes 30-38 and accompanying text.
309. The WHO released its first-ever analysis of national health care systems in 2000. See WHO, THE WORLD HEALTH REPORT 2000, HEALTH SYSTEMS: IMPROVING PERFORMANCE (2000), http://www.who.int/entity/whr/2000/en/whr00_en.pdf. The WHO has devoted great attention to the standardization of measures of population health status to facilitate meaningful comparisons among countries.
310. See WHO, Measuring and Reporting on the Health of Populations: Report by the Secretariat, U.N. Doc. EB107/8 (Dec. 15, 2000), http://ftp.who.int/gb/archive/pdf_files/EB107/ee8.pdf;
311. see also WHO, SUMMARY MEASURES OF POPULATION HEALTH: CONCEPTS, ETHICS, MEASUREMENT AND APPLICATIONS (Christopher J. L. Murray et al. eds., 2002). More recently, the WHO has also stepped up its data collection on the health and health care of member states. Specifically, in its Global InfoBase, the WHO has assembled comprehensive, country-level data on the health sector of its member states.
312. WHO, WHO Global Infobase Online, http://www.who.int/ncd_surveillance/ infobase/web/surf2/online.html (last visited Feb. 27, 2008). From the data in the WHO Global InfoBase, including chronic disease data from member states, the WHO publishes the Surveillance of Risk Factors Report series (SuRF), which includes biennial, technical reports on country-level data for eight chronic disease risk factors.
313. See WHO, THE SURF REPORT 2: SURVEILLANCE OF CHRONIC DISEASE RISK FACTORS: COUNTRY-LEVEL DATA AND COMPARABLE ESTIMATES (2005), http://www.who.int/ ncd_surveillance/infobase/web/surf2/surf2.pdf. The WHO also maintains a Web page with links to the major national databases with health sector data. See WHO, Links to National Health-Related Websites, http://www.who.int/whosis/ database/national_sites/index.cfm (last visited Feb. 27, 2008).
314. The UNDP maintains relevant national data on health indicators, as well as other relevant indicators for tracking the progress of development. See UNDP, Human Development Reports, http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/ (last visited Feb. 27, 2008).
315. OECD has been especially active in developing measures for comparing national health sectors of its members, which comprise the more developed nations of the world. In 2001, OECD launched a three-year health project that focused on measuring and analyzing the performance of health care systems in member countries and factors affecting performance. OECD, OECD Health Project, http://www.oecd.org/document/28/0,2340,en_2649_34631_2536540_1_1_1_1,00.html (last visited Feb. 27, 2008). Through this project, OECD publishes-in print and on the Web, and on an annual basis beginning in 2005-OECD Health Data, which provides the most comprehensive source of comparable statistics on health and health systems available among OECD countries. Also through this project, OECD has developed a system of health accounts that establishes a conceptual framework for comparing national health care sectors.
316. See OECD, A SYSTEM OF HEALTH ACCOUNTS (2000), http://www.oecd/ org/health/sha. In addition, OECD has analyzed disease-based methods and indicators for comparing health sector performance, as well as an analysis of how to achieve highperforming national health sectors.
317. See, e.g., OECD, A DISEASE-BASED COMPARISON OF HEALTH SYSTEMS: WHAT IS BEST AND AT WHAT COST? (2003);
318. OECD, TOWARDS HIGH-PERFORMING HEALTH SYSTEMS: POLICY STUDIES (2004). OECD has also launched its Health Care Quality Indicators Project (HCQI) to facilitate the comparison of the quality of care in OECD nations as a means of assessing the value for money spent for health care.
319. See OECD, Health Care Quality Indicators Project, http://www.oecd.org/documentprint/0,3455,en26493463124841271111,00.html (last visited Feb. 27, 2008). OECD data on "quality indicators" include measures of health outcome or health improvement attributable to medical care and depend heavily on the seminal work of the Institute of Medicine developing quality indicators through its Health Care Quality Initiative.
320. See Institute of Medicine, Crossing the Quality Chasm: The IOM Health Care Quality Initiative, http://www.iom.edu/CMS/8089.aspx?printfriendly= true&redirect=0 (last visited Feb. 27, 2008). The Institute of Medicine report offers a framework for assessing health care quality, identifies the types of measures of health care quality that should be included in the report, and suggests the criteria for selecting measures.
321. See INSTITUTE OF MEDICINE, ENVISIONING THE NATIONAL HEALTH CARE QUALITY REPORT (Margarita P. Hurtado, Elaine K. Swift & Janet M. Corrigan eds., 2001).
322. OECD has also developed measures for comparing national economic infrastructure. OECD, ECONOMIC SURVEY OF THE UNITED STATES (2005), http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/4/11/35541272.pdf.
323. The World Bank is deeply involved in the generation of data and methodologies for comparing population health status and also assisting countries in improving health care and health status directly. The Health Systems Development (HSD) group of the Human Development Network's Health, Nutrition & Population Unit works on a variety of comparative health issues and provides technical assistance to developing nations on the improvement of their health care sectors. See The World Bank: Health Systems & Financing, http://www.worldbank.org/hsd (last visited Feb. 27, 2008). The World Bank also has a Web site containing technical notes on quantitative techniques for the analysis of health equity issues in a country. See OWEN O'DONNELL ET AL., THE WORLD BANK INSTITUTE, ANALYZING HEALTH EQUITY USING HOUSEHOLD SURVEY DATA: A GUIDE TO TECHNIQUES AND THEIR IMPLEMENTATION (2008), http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTPAH/Resources/Publications/ 459843-1195594469249/HealthEquityFinal.pdf. Finally, the World Bank has developed a set of indicators for the quality of a state's governance that address six dimensions of governance: (1) voice and accountability, (2) political stability and absence of violence, (3) government effectiveness, (4) regulatory quality, (5) rule of law, and (6) control of corruption.
324. See Daniel Kaufmann et al., World Bank, Governance Matters V: Aggregate and Individual Governance Indicators for 1996-2005 (2006) (unpublished manuscript), available at http://www.worldbank.org/wbi/governance/ govmatters5.html;
325. see also Daniel Kaufmann et al., World Bank, Governance Matters IV: Governance Indicators for 1996-2004 (2005) (unpublished manuscript), available at http://www.worldbank.org/wbi/governance/pubs/go vmatters4.html.
326. The Commonwealth Fund, International Health Program in Health Policy and Practice, http://www.cmwf.org/programs/programs_list.htm?attrib_id=9141 (last visited Feb. 27, 2008).
327. See KAREN DAVIS ET AL., THE COMMONWEALTH FUND, MIRROR, MIRROR ON THE WALL: LOOKING AT THE QUALITY OF AMERICAN HEALTH CARE THROUGH THE PATIENT'S LENS (2004);
328. see also Cathy Schoen et al., Taking the Pulse of Health Care Systems: Experiences of Patients with Health Problems in Six Countries, HEALTH AFF., http://content.healthaffairs.org/cgi/content/ full/hlthaff.w5.509/DCl;
329. Karen Donelan et al., The Cost of Health System Change: Public Discontent in Five Nations, 18 HEALTH AFF. 206 (1999);
330. Cathy Schoen et al., Health Insurance Markets and Income Inequality: Findings from an International Health Policy Survey, 51 HEALTH POL'Y 67 (2000) [hereinafter Schoen, Health Insurance];
331. Karen Donelan et al., The Elderly in Five Nations: The Importance of Universal Coverage, 19 HEALTH AFF. 226 (2000);
332. Robert J. Blendon et al., Physicians' Views on Quality of Care: A Five-Country Comparison, 20 HEALTH AFF. 233 (2001);
333. Robert J. Blendon et al., Inequities in Health Care: A Five-Country Survey, 21 HEALTH AFF. 182 (2002);
334. Robert J. Blendon et al., Common Concerns Amid Diverse Systems: Health Care Experiences in Five Countries, 22 HEALTH AFF. 106 (2003).
335. TOM DASCHLE, CTR. FOR AM. PROGRESS, PAYING MORE BUT GETTING LESS: MYTHS AND THE GLOBAL CASE FOR U.S. HEALTH REFORM (2005), http://www.americanprogress.org/ kfpaying_more_getting_less.pdf;
336. OECD, HEALTH DATA 2005: HOW DOES THE UNITED STATES COMPARE (2005), available at http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/15/23/34970246.pdf;
337. Barbara Starfield, Is U.S. Health Really the Best in the World?, 284 J. AM. MED. ASS'N 483 (2000);
338. Gerald F. Anderson et al., Health Spending and Outcomes: Trends in OECD Countries, 1960-1998, 19 HEALTH AFF. 150 (2000).
339. See WHO, WORLD HEALTH STATISTICS 2006, http://www.who.int/entity/whois/whostat2006_healthsystems.pdf (last visited Mar. 23, 2008);
340. see also Gerald F. Anderson et al., Health Spending in the United States and The Rest of the Industrialized World, 24 HEALTH AFF. 904, 904-05 (2005).
341. WHO, WORLD HEALTH STATISTICS 2006, supra note 214.
342. UNDP, HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2005 INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION AT A CROSSROADS: AID, TRADE AND SECURITY IN AN UNEQUAL WORLD (2005), http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/hdr05_complete.pdf.
343. See WHO, WORLD HEALTH REPORT 2000, supra note 207, at 155.
344. See, e.g., IS INEQUALITY BAD FOR OUR HEALTH (Norman Daniels, Bruce Kennedy & Ichiro Kawachi eds., 2000);
345. Ichiro Kawachi et al., Social Capital, Income Inequality, and Mortality, 87 AM. J. PUB. HEALTH 1491, 1491-97 (1997);
346. David Mechanic, Rediscovering the Social Determinants of Health, 19 HEALTH AFF. 269, 269-75 (2000);
347. Michael Marmot, Inequalities in Health, 345 NEW ENG. J. MED. 134, 134-36 (2001);
348. Judith A. Long et al., Update on the Health Disparities Literature, 141 ANN. INTERN. MED. 805, 805 (2004);
349. Talmadge E. King Jr. & Margaret B. Wheeler, Inequality in Health Care: Unjust, Inhumane, and Unattended!, 141 ANN. INTERN. MED. 815, 815-17 (2004);
350. see also SOCIAL DETERMINANTS OF HEALTH (Michael Marmot & Richard G. Wilkinson eds., 1999);
351. James S. House & David R. Williams, Understanding And Reducing Socioeconomic And Racial/Ethnic Disparities In Health, in PROMOTING HEALTH: INTERVENTION STRATEGIES FROM SOCIAL AND BEHAVIORAL RESEARCH (B.D. Smedlers & S.L. Syme eds., 2000);
352. RONALD LABONTE, TED SCHRECKER & AMIT SEN GUPTA, HEALTH FOR SOME: DEATH, DISEASE AND DISPARITY IN A GLOBALIZING ERA (2005).
353. See Angus Deaton, Health, Inequality, and Economic Development, 41 J. ECON. LIT. 113 (2003).
354. See WORLD BANK, WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2006: EQUITY AND DEVELOPMENT (2005), http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTWDR2006/ Resources/477383-1127230817535/WDR2006overview.pdf Gast visited Mar. 23 2008).
355. See James Dwyer, Global Health and Justice, 19 BIOETHICS 460 (2005);
356. Stephen P. Marks, The Evolving Field of Health and Human Rights: Issues and Methods, 30 J.L. MED. & ETHICS 739 (2002);
357. Scott Burris, Ichiro Kawachi & Austin Sarat, Integrating Law and Social Epidemiology, 30 J.L. MED. & ETHICS 510 (2002).
358. WHO, WORLD HEALTH STATISTICS 2006, supra note 214.
359. UNITED NATIONS, THE MILLENNIUM DEVELOPMENT GOALS REPORT (2005), http://unstats.un. org/unsd/mi/pdf/MDG%20Book.pdf.
360. OECD, Health Data 2006, http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/7/41/35530083.xls (last visited Oct. 12, 2006).
361. Id.
362. See WORLD BANK, WORLD DEVELOPMENT INDICATORS (2005), http://devdata.worldbank.org/ wd:2005
363. DENAVAS-WALT ET AL., supra note 145, at 16 fig.5.
364. Id. at 11.
365. See The World Bank: Health Systems & Financing, supra note 210.
366. OECD, Health Data 2005, supra note 213.
367. Id.
368. See Gerard F. Anderson & Jean-Pierre Poullier, Health Spending, Access, and Outcomes: Trends in Industrialized Countries, 18 HEALTH AFF. 178 (1999).
369. OECD, HEALTH DATA 2006: HOW DOES THE UNITED STATES COMPARE (2006), http://www.oecd.org/ dataoecd/29/52/36960035.pdf. In 2002, the number of nurses per capita in the United States fell below the OECD mean.
370. Anderson et al., supra note 215, at 906.
371. Schoen, Health Insurance, supra note 212, at 77.
372. Id. at 78-79.
373. See supra note 213 and accompanying text.
374. See Schoen, Health Insurance, supra note 212, at W5-510.
375. Id. at W5-517.
376. See ICESCR General Comment 14, supra note 30, at 15.
377. 42 U.S.C. §§ 300k-1 to 300k-3 (1982) (repealed by Pub. L. No. 99-660, tit. VII, § 701(a), 100 Stat. 3743).
378. See generally BONNIE LEFKOWITZ, HEALTH PLANNING: LESSONS FOR THE FUTURE (1983).