Rethinking health and human rights: Time for a paradigm shift

Journal of Law, Medicine and Ethics

Volumn 30, Issue 4, 2002, Pages 655-666

  Farmer, Paul ^a,b,c,d   Gastineau, Nicole ^b  

^a HARVARD MEDICAL SCHOOL   (United States)

^b PARTNERS IN HEALTH   (United States)

^c BRIGHAM AND WOMEN S HOSPITAL   (United States)

^d Harvard Medical School ^*

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ANTIRETROVIRUS AGENT;

CONFERENCE PAPER; COST BENEFIT ANALYSIS; CULTURAL FACTOR; ECONOMIC ASPECT; EDUCATION; ETHNOLOGY; HEALTH; HEALTH CARE; HEALTH CARE ORGANIZATION; HEALTH CARE POLICY; HEALTH PRACTITIONER; HEALTH SERVICE; HOMICIDE; HOUSING; HUMAN; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS INFECTION; HUMAN RIGHTS; INCOME; INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION; LAW ENFORCEMENT; OCCUPATION; PHYSICIAN; POLITICS; POPULATION RESEARCH; POVERTY; RESOURCE ALLOCATION; SCIENCE; SEX DIFFERENCE; SOCIAL ASPECT; VIOLENCE; WELLBEING; ARTICLE; HEALTH CARE AND PUBLIC HEALTH; HEALTH CARE DELIVERY; MORALITY; PUBLIC HEALTH; SOCIAL PROBLEM;

HEALTH CARE AND PUBLIC HEALTH;

HEALTH SERVICES ACCESSIBILITY; HUMAN RIGHTS; HUMANS; MORAL OBLIGATIONS; PUBLIC HEALTH; SOCIAL PROBLEMS; WORLD HEALTH;

EID: 0036984438     PISSN: 10731105     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1748-720X.2002.tb00433.x     Document Type: Conference Paper

References (68)

1. Universal Declaration of Human Rights, G.A. Res. 217 A (III), U.N. Doc. A/810 (1948): at Article 25, available at 〈http://www.un.org/Overview/ rights.html〉.
2. The Sentencing Project, "U.S. Continues to be World Leader in Rate of Incarceration," at 〈http://www.sentencingproject.org/news/usno1. pdf〉 (revised August 2001).
3. E.E. Telzak et al., "Multidrug-Resistant Tuberculosis in Patients Without HIV Infection," N. Engl. J. Med., 333 (1995): 907-11; C. Mitnick et al., "Treatment Outcomes in 75 Patients with Chronic Multidrug-Resistant Tuberculosis Enrolled in Aggressive Community-Based Therapy in Urban Peru," International Journal of Tuberculosis and Lung Disease, 5, no. 11, suppl. 1 (2001): S156; P.E. Farmer et al., "Preliminary Results of Community-Based MDRTB Treatment in Lima, Peru," International Journal of Tuberculosis and Lung Disease, 2, no. 11, suppl. 2 (1998): S371; P.E. Farmer et al., "Responding to Outbreaks of MDRTB: Introducing 'DOTS-Plus,'" in L.B. Reichman and E.S. Hershfield, eds., Tuberculosis: A Comprehensive International Approach, 2d ed. (New York: Marcel Dekker Inc., 1999): 447-69; K. Tahaoǧlu et al., "The Treatment of Multidrug-Resistant Tuberculosis in Turkey," N. Engl. J. Med., 345 (2001): 170-74.
4. E.E. Telzak et al., "Multidrug-Resistant Tuberculosis in Patients Without HIV Infection," N. Engl. J. Med., 333 (1995): 907-11; C. Mitnick et al., "Treatment Outcomes in 75 Patients with Chronic Multidrug-Resistant Tuberculosis Enrolled in Aggressive Community-Based Therapy in Urban Peru," International Journal of Tuberculosis and Lung Disease, 5, no. 11, suppl. 1 (2001): S156; P.E. Farmer et al., "Preliminary Results of Community-Based MDRTB Treatment in Lima, Peru," International Journal of Tuberculosis and Lung Disease, 2, no. 11, suppl. 2 (1998): S371; P.E. Farmer et al., "Responding to Outbreaks of MDRTB: Introducing 'DOTS-Plus,'" in L.B. Reichman and E.S. Hershfield, eds., Tuberculosis: A Comprehensive International Approach, 2d ed. (New York: Marcel Dekker Inc., 1999): 447-69; K. Tahaoǧlu et al., "The Treatment of Multidrug-Resistant Tuberculosis in Turkey," N. Engl. J. Med., 345 (2001): 170-74.
5. E.E. Telzak et al., "Multidrug-Resistant Tuberculosis in Patients Without HIV Infection," N. Engl. J. Med., 333 (1995): 907-11; C. Mitnick et al., "Treatment Outcomes in 75 Patients with Chronic Multidrug-Resistant Tuberculosis Enrolled in Aggressive Community-Based Therapy in Urban Peru," International Journal of Tuberculosis and Lung Disease, 5, no. 11, suppl. 1 (2001): S156; P.E. Farmer et al., "Preliminary Results of Community-Based MDRTB Treatment in Lima, Peru," International Journal of Tuberculosis and Lung Disease, 2, no. 11, suppl. 2 (1998): S371; P.E. Farmer et al., "Responding to Outbreaks of MDRTB: Introducing 'DOTS-Plus,'" in L.B. Reichman and E.S. Hershfield, eds., Tuberculosis: A Comprehensive International Approach, 2d ed. (New York: Marcel Dekker Inc., 1999): 447-69; K. Tahaoǧlu et al., "The Treatment of Multidrug-Resistant Tuberculosis in Turkey," N. Engl. J. Med., 345 (2001): 170-74.
6. E.E. Telzak et al., "Multidrug-Resistant Tuberculosis in Patients Without HIV Infection," N. Engl. J. Med., 333 (1995): 907-11; C. Mitnick et al., "Treatment Outcomes in 75 Patients with Chronic Multidrug-Resistant Tuberculosis Enrolled in Aggressive Community-Based Therapy in Urban Peru," International Journal of Tuberculosis and Lung Disease, 5, no. 11, suppl. 1 (2001): S156; P.E. Farmer et al., "Preliminary Results of Community-Based MDRTB Treatment in Lima, Peru," International Journal of Tuberculosis and Lung Disease, 2, no. 11, suppl. 2 (1998): S371; P.E. Farmer et al., "Responding to Outbreaks of MDRTB: Introducing 'DOTS-Plus,'" in L.B. Reichman and E.S. Hershfield, eds., Tuberculosis: A Comprehensive International Approach, 2d ed. (New York: Marcel Dekker Inc., 1999): 447-69; K. Tahaoǧlu et al., "The Treatment of Multidrug-Resistant Tuberculosis in Turkey," N. Engl. J. Med., 345 (2001): 170-74.
7. E.E. Telzak et al., "Multidrug-Resistant Tuberculosis in Patients Without HIV Infection," N. Engl. J. Med., 333 (1995): 907-11; C. Mitnick et al., "Treatment Outcomes in 75 Patients with Chronic Multidrug-Resistant Tuberculosis Enrolled in Aggressive Community-Based Therapy in Urban Peru," International Journal of Tuberculosis and Lung Disease, 5, no. 11, suppl. 1 (2001): S156; P.E. Farmer et al., "Preliminary Results of Community-Based MDRTB Treatment in Lima, Peru," International Journal of Tuberculosis and Lung Disease, 2, no. 11, suppl. 2 (1998): S371; P.E. Farmer et al., "Responding to Outbreaks of MDRTB: Introducing 'DOTS-Plus,'" in L.B. Reichman and E.S. Hershfield, eds., Tuberculosis: A Comprehensive International Approach, 2d ed. (New York: Marcel Dekker Inc., 1999): 447-69; K. Tahaoǧlu et al., "The Treatment of Multidrug-Resistant Tuberculosis in Turkey," N. Engl. J. Med., 345 (2001): 170-74.
8. Amnesty International, Torture in Russia: "This Man-Made Hell" (London: Amnesty International, 1997): at 31.
9. Dr. Natalya Vezhina, Medical Director, TB Colony 33, Mariinsk, Kemerovo, Russian Federation; interview by author (Farmer), Mariinsk, September 1998.
10. A. Alexander, "Money Isn't the Issue; It's (Still) Political Will," TB Monitor, 5, no. 5 (1998): 53.
11. See Farmer et al. (1998), supra note 3.
12. See D. Campbell, "Herskovits, Cultural Relativism and Metascience," in M. Herskovits, ed., Cultural Relativism: Perspectives in Cultural Pluralism (New York: Random House, 1972): 289-315; C. Geertz, "Anti-anti-relativism," American Anthropologist, 86 (1984): 263-78; E. Hatch, Culture and Morality: The Relativity of Values in Anthropology (New York: Columbia University Press, 1983); A.D. Renteln, "Relativism and the Search for Human Rights," American Anthropologist, 90 (1988): 56-72; P.F. Schmidt, "Some Criticisms of Cultural Relativism," Journal of Philosophy, 70 (1955): 780-91.
13. See D. Campbell, "Herskovits, Cultural Relativism and Metascience," in M. Herskovits, ed., Cultural Relativism: Perspectives in Cultural Pluralism (New York: Random House, 1972): 289-315; C. Geertz, "Anti-anti-relativism," American Anthropologist, 86 (1984): 263-78; E. Hatch, Culture and Morality: The Relativity of Values in Anthropology (New York: Columbia University Press, 1983); A.D. Renteln, "Relativism and the Search for Human Rights," American Anthropologist, 90 (1988): 56-72; P.F. Schmidt, "Some Criticisms of Cultural Relativism," Journal of Philosophy, 70 (1955): 780-91.
14. See D. Campbell, "Herskovits, Cultural Relativism and Metascience," in M. Herskovits, ed., Cultural Relativism: Perspectives in Cultural Pluralism (New York: Random House, 1972): 289-315; C. Geertz, "Anti-anti-relativism," American Anthropologist, 86 (1984): 263-78; E. Hatch, Culture and Morality: The Relativity of Values in Anthropology (New York: Columbia University Press, 1983); A.D. Renteln, "Relativism and the Search for Human Rights," American Anthropologist, 90 (1988): 56-72; P.F. Schmidt, "Some Criticisms of Cultural Relativism," Journal of Philosophy, 70 (1955): 780-91.
15. See D. Campbell, "Herskovits, Cultural Relativism and Metascience," in M. Herskovits, ed., Cultural Relativism: Perspectives in Cultural Pluralism (New York: Random House, 1972): 289-315; C. Geertz, "Anti-anti-relativism," American Anthropologist, 86 (1984): 263-78; E. Hatch, Culture and Morality: The Relativity of Values in Anthropology (New York: Columbia University Press, 1983); A.D. Renteln, "Relativism and the Search for Human Rights," American Anthropologist, 90 (1988): 56-72; P.F. Schmidt, "Some Criticisms of Cultural Relativism," Journal of Philosophy, 70 (1955): 780-91.
16. See D. Campbell, "Herskovits, Cultural Relativism and Metascience," in M. Herskovits, ed., Cultural Relativism: Perspectives in Cultural Pluralism (New York: Random House, 1972): 289-315; C. Geertz, "Anti-anti-relativism," American Anthropologist, 86 (1984): 263-78; E. Hatch, Culture and Morality: The Relativity of Values in Anthropology (New York: Columbia University Press, 1983); A.D. Renteln, "Relativism and the Search for Human Rights," American Anthropologist, 90 (1988): 56-72; P.F. Schmidt, "Some Criticisms of Cultural Relativism," Journal of Philosophy, 70 (1955): 780-91.
17. The Right to the Highest Attainable Standard of Health: General Comment 14, United Nations, Economic and Social Council, E/C 12/2000/4 (2000), available at 〈http://www.unhchr.ch/tbs/doc.nsf/MasterFrameView/ 40d009901358b0e2c1256915005090be?Opendocument〉.
18. See P.E. Farmer et al., "Community-Based Approaches to HIV Treatment in Resource-Poor Settings," Lancet, 358 (2001): 404-09.
19. H. Steiner and P. Alston, International Human Rights in Context: Law, Politics, Morals (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996): at vi.
20. A. Neier, War Crimes: Brutality, Genocide, Terror, and the Struggle for Justice (New York: Times Books, 1998): at 75.
21. Cited in Steiner and Alston, supra note 11, at 141 (emphasis in the original).
22. J.V. Millen and T.H. Holtz, "Dying for Growth, Part I: Transnational Corporation and the Health of the Poor," in J.Y. Kim et al., eds., Dying for Growth: Global Inequality and the Health of the Poor (Monroe, Maine: Common Courage Press, 2000): 177-223, at 185.
23. See P.E. Farmer, "Cruel and Unusual: Drug Resistant Tuberculosis as Punishment," in V. Stern and R. Jones, eds., Sentenced to Die? The Problem of TB in Prisons in East and Central Europe and Central Asia (London: International Centre for Prison Studies, 1999): 70-88; R.G. Wilkinson, Unhealthy Societies: The Afflictions of Inequality (London: Routledge, 1997); I. Kawachi et al., "Social Capital, Income Inequality, and Mortality," American Journal of Public Health, 87 (1997): 1491-98; A. Leclerc et al., eds., Les Inégalités Sociales de Santé (Paris: Éditions la Découverte et Syros, 2000).
24. See P.E. Farmer, "Cruel and Unusual: Drug Resistant Tuberculosis as Punishment," in V. Stern and R. Jones, eds., Sentenced to Die? The Problem of TB in Prisons in East and Central Europe and Central Asia (London: International Centre for Prison Studies, 1999): 70-88; R.G. Wilkinson, Unhealthy Societies: The Afflictions of Inequality (London: Routledge, 1997); I. Kawachi et al., "Social Capital, Income Inequality, and Mortality," American Journal of Public Health, 87 (1997): 1491-98; A. Leclerc et al., eds., Les Inégalités Sociales de Santé (Paris: Éditions la Découverte et Syros, 2000).
25. See P.E. Farmer, "Cruel and Unusual: Drug Resistant Tuberculosis as Punishment," in V. Stern and R. Jones, eds., Sentenced to Die? The Problem of TB in Prisons in East and Central Europe and Central Asia (London: International Centre for Prison Studies, 1999): 70-88; R.G. Wilkinson, Unhealthy Societies: The Afflictions of Inequality (London: Routledge, 1997); I. Kawachi et al., "Social Capital, Income Inequality, and Mortality," American Journal of Public Health, 87 (1997): 1491-98; A. Leclerc et al., eds., Les Inégalités Sociales de Santé (Paris: Éditions la Découverte et Syros, 2000).
26. See P.E. Farmer, "Cruel and Unusual: Drug Resistant Tuberculosis as Punishment," in V. Stern and R. Jones, eds., Sentenced to Die? The Problem of TB in Prisons in East and Central Europe and Central Asia (London: International Centre for Prison Studies, 1999): 70-88; R.G. Wilkinson, Unhealthy Societies: The Afflictions of Inequality (London: Routledge, 1997); I. Kawachi et al., "Social Capital, Income Inequality, and Mortality," American Journal of Public Health, 87 (1997): 1491-98; A. Leclerc et al., eds., Les Inégalités Sociales de Santé (Paris: Éditions la Découverte et Syros, 2000).
27. See M. Whitehead et al., "Setting Targets to Address Inequalities in Health," Lancet, 351 (1998): 1279-82.
28. P.E. Farmer, "The Significance of Haiti," in North American Congress on Latin America, ed., Haiti: Dangerous Crossroads (Boston: South End Press, 1995): 217-30.
29. See B. Concannon, "Beyond Complementarity: The International Criminal Court and National Prosecutions, A View from Haiti," Columbia Human Rights Law Review, 32, no. 1 (2000): 201-50.
30. See Oficina los Derechos Humanos del Arzobispado de Guatemala (ODHAG), Guatemala: Nunca Más (Guatemala: Informe Proyecto Interdiocesano de Recuperación de la Memoria Historica, 1998).
31. See Neier, supra note 12, at 33.
32. See A. Neier, "What Should be Done About the Guilty?," The New York Review of Books, February 1, 1990, at 32-35.
33. See A. Guillermoprieto, The Heart that Bleeds: Latin America Now (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1994); N. Chomsky, Turning the Tide: U.S. Intervention in Central America and the Struggle for Peace (Boston: South End Press, 1985); W. LaFeber, Inevitable Revolutions: The United States in Central America (New York: W.W. Norton, 1984).
34. See A. Guillermoprieto, The Heart that Bleeds: Latin America Now (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1994); N. Chomsky, Turning the Tide: U.S. Intervention in Central America and the Struggle for Peace (Boston: South End Press, 1985); W. LaFeber, Inevitable Revolutions: The United States in Central America (New York: W.W. Norton, 1984).
35. See A. Guillermoprieto, The Heart that Bleeds: Latin America Now (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1994); N. Chomsky, Turning the Tide: U.S. Intervention in Central America and the Struggle for Peace (Boston: South End Press, 1985); W. LaFeber, Inevitable Revolutions: The United States in Central America (New York: W.W. Norton, 1984).
36. P. Bourdieu, ed., La Misère du Monde (Paris: Seuil, 1993): at 944.
37. See T. Asad, ed., Anthropology and the Colonial Encounter (London: Ithaca Press and Humanities, 1975); D. Hymes, "The Uses of Anthropology: Critical, Political, Personal," in D. Hymes, ed., Reinventing Anthropology (New York: Random House, 1974): 3-79; G.D. Berreman, "Bringing It All Back Home: Malaise in Anthropology," in D. Hymes, ed., Reinventing Anthropology (New York: Random House, 1974): 83-98.
38. See T. Asad, ed., Anthropology and the Colonial Encounter (London: Ithaca Press and Humanities, 1975); D. Hymes, "The Uses of Anthropology: Critical, Political, Personal," in D. Hymes, ed., Reinventing Anthropology (New York: Random House, 1974): 3-79; G.D. Berreman, "Bringing It All Back Home: Malaise in Anthropology," in D. Hymes, ed., Reinventing Anthropology (New York: Random House, 1974): 83-98.
39. See T. Asad, ed., Anthropology and the Colonial Encounter (London: Ithaca Press and Humanities, 1975); D. Hymes, "The Uses of Anthropology: Critical, Political, Personal," in D. Hymes, ed., Reinventing Anthropology (New York: Random House, 1974): 3-79; G.D. Berreman, "Bringing It All Back Home: Malaise in Anthropology," in D. Hymes, ed., Reinventing Anthropology (New York: Random House, 1974): 83-98.
40. See P.E. Farmer, The Uses of Haiti (Monroe, Maine: Common Courage Press, 1994); G. Hancock, The Lords of Poverty: The Power, Prestige, and Corruption of the International Aid Business (New York: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1989).
41. See P.E. Farmer, The Uses of Haiti (Monroe, Maine: Common Courage Press, 1994); G. Hancock, The Lords of Poverty: The Power, Prestige, and Corruption of the International Aid Business (New York: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1989).
42. See I. Wallerstein, "The Insurmountable Contradictions of Liberalism: Human Rights and the Rights of Peoples in the Geoculture of the Modern World-System," South Atlantic Quarterly, 46 (1995): 1161-78.
43. T. Quinn et al., "Viral Load and Heterosexual Transmission of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1," N. Engl. J. Med., 342 (2000): 921-29; M.S. Cohen, "Preventing Sexual Transmission of HIV - New Ideas from Sub-Saharan Africa," N. Engl. J. Med., 342 (2000): 970-72; M. Angell, "Investigators' Responsibilities for Human Subjects in Developing Countries," N. Engl. J. Med., 342 (2000): 967-69; D. Greco, "The Ethics of Research in Developing Countries," N. Engl. J. Med., 343 (2000): 362.
44. T. Quinn et al., "Viral Load and Heterosexual Transmission of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1," N. Engl. J. Med., 342 (2000): 921-29; M.S. Cohen, "Preventing Sexual Transmission of HIV - New Ideas from Sub-Saharan Africa," N. Engl. J. Med., 342 (2000): 970-72; M. Angell, "Investigators' Responsibilities for Human Subjects in Developing Countries," N. Engl. J. Med., 342 (2000): 967-69; D. Greco, "The Ethics of Research in Developing Countries," N. Engl. J. Med., 343 (2000): 362.
45. T. Quinn et al., "Viral Load and Heterosexual Transmission of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1," N. Engl. J. Med., 342 (2000): 921-29; M.S. Cohen, "Preventing Sexual Transmission of HIV - New Ideas from Sub-Saharan Africa," N. Engl. J. Med., 342 (2000): 970-72; M. Angell, "Investigators' Responsibilities for Human Subjects in Developing Countries," N. Engl. J. Med., 342 (2000): 967-69; D. Greco, "The Ethics of Research in Developing Countries," N. Engl. J. Med., 343 (2000): 362.
46. T. Quinn et al., "Viral Load and Heterosexual Transmission of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1," N. Engl. J. Med., 342 (2000): 921-29; M.S. Cohen, "Preventing Sexual Transmission of HIV - New Ideas from Sub-Saharan Africa," N. Engl. J. Med., 342 (2000): 970-72; M. Angell, "Investigators' Responsibilities for Human Subjects in Developing Countries," N. Engl. J. Med., 342 (2000): 967-69; D. Greco, "The Ethics of Research in Developing Countries," N. Engl. J. Med., 343 (2000): 362.
47. P.E. Farmer, AIDS and Accusation: Haiti and the Geography of Blame (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992).
48. See Steiner and Alston, supra note 11, at 1110.
49. L. Harrison, "Voodoo Politics," The Atlantic Monthly, 271, no. 6 (1993): 101-08.
50. Haitian proverb.
51. S. Marcos and the Zapatista Army of National Liberation, Shadows of Tender Fury: The Letters and Communiqués of Subcomandante Marcos and the Zapatista Army of National Liberation (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1995): at 54.
52. Physicians for Human Rights, Health Care Held Hostage: Human Rights Violations and Violations of Medical Neutrality in Chiapas, Mexico (Boston: Physicians for Human Rights, 1999): at 4.
53. See Concannon, supra note 18.
54. M. Danner, "The Truth of El Mozote," The New Yorker (December 6, 1993): 50-133, at 132. Danner quotes from the Truth Commission's report, From Madness to Hope: The Twelve-Year War in El Salvador.
55. M. Danner, "The Truth of El Mozote," The New Yorker (December 6, 1993): 50-133, at 132. Danner quotes from the Truth Commission's report, From Madness to Hope: The Twelve-Year War in El Salvador.
56. See Physicians for Human Rights, supra note 33, at 4.
57. R.L.K. Virchow, Die Einheitsrebungen in der Wissenschaftlichen Medicin (Berlin: Druck und Verlag von G. Reimer, 1849); L. Eisenberg, "Rudolf Ludwig Karl Virchow, Where Are You Now That We Need You?," American Journal of Medicine, 77 (1984): 524-32.
58. R.L.K. Virchow, Die Einheitsrebungen in der Wissenschaftlichen Medicin (Berlin: Druck und Verlag von G. Reimer, 1849); L. Eisenberg, "Rudolf Ludwig Karl Virchow, Where Are You Now That We Need You?," American Journal of Medicine, 77 (1984): 524-32.
59. J. Mann and D. Tarantola, "Responding to HIV/AIDS: A Historical Perspective," Health and Human Rights, 2, no. 4, (1998): 5-8, at 8.
60. Ivan Nikitovich Simonov, Chief Inspector of Prisons (now with the Chief Board of Punishment Execution), Ministry of Internal Affairs, Russian Federation; interview by author (Farmer), Moscow, June 4, 1998.
61. L. Henkin, International Law: Politics, Values and Functions: General Course on Public International Law (Boston: M. Nijhoff Publishers, 1990): at 208.
62. See O. Schachter, International Law in Theory and Practice (Boston: M. Nijhoff Publishers, 1991): at 6.
63. See Neier, supra note 12, at xiii.
64. See Steiner and Alston, supra note 11, at viii.
65. See P.E. Farmer, Infections and Inequalities: The Modern Plagues (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999): at 18.
66. R. Neugebauer, "Research on Violence in Developing Countries: Benefits and Perils," American Journal of Public Health. 89, no. 10 (1999): 1473-74, at 1474.
67. J. Mann, "AIDS and Human Rights: Where Do We Go From Here?," Health and Human Rights, 3, no. 1 (1998): 143-49, at 145-46.
68. L. Kroll and L. Goldman, "The World's Billionaires" (February 28, 2002), at 〈http://www.forbes.com/home/2002/02/28/billionaires. html〉.