Why dominican feminism moved to the right: Class, colour and women's activism in the Dominican Republic, 1880s-1940s

Gender and History

Volumn 20, Issue 2, 2008, Pages 349-371

  Mayes, April J ^a  

^a POMONA COLLEGE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CLASS; FEMINISM; HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY; ICONOGRAPHY; NATIONALISM; POLITICAL POWER; RACE;

ATLANTIC ISLANDS; ATLANTIC OCEAN; CARIBBEAN ISLANDS; DOMINICAN REPUBLIC; GREATER ANTILLES;

EID: 48049085639     PISSN: 09535233     EISSN: 14680424     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-0424.2008.00525.x     Document Type: Article

References (148)

1. Paola Bacchetta and Margaret Power, 'Introduction', in Paola Bacchetta and Margaret Power (eds), Right- Wing Women: From Conservatives to Extremists around the World (London: Routledge, 2002), pp. 1-18, here p. 3.
2. The scholarship on Dominican feminism has grown in recent years: Daisy Cocco de Filippis (ed.), Documents of Dissidence: Selected Writings by Dominican Women (New York: City University of New York Dominican Studies Institute, 2000).
3. Teresita Martínez-Vergne, 'BourgeoisWomen in the Early Twentieth Century Dominican National Discourse', New West Indian Guide 75 (2001), pp. 65-89.
4. Ramón Alberto Ferreras, Historia del feminismo en la República Dominicana (Santo Domingo: Editorial del Noreste, 1991).
5. Ginetta E. B. Candelario (ed.), Miradas desencadenantes: Los estudios de género en la Republica Dominicana al inicio del Tercer Milenio (Santo Domingo: INTEC, 2005). The forthcoming dissertations by Melissa Madera and Elizabeth Manley will make significant contributions in this field.
6. General Rafael L. Trujillo Molina, 'Discurso del Presidente de la República General Rafael L. Trujillo Molina en el Ateneo Dominicano, el 14 de Mayo de 1932', reprinted in Carmen Lara Fernández (ed.), Historia del feminismo en la República Dominicana (Ciudad Trujillo [Santo Domingo]: Impresa Arte y Cine, 1946), pp. 19-24, here p. 22 (my emphasis).
7. 'Aporte de la mujer desde las filas del "Partido Dominicano" al plan de asistencia social instituido en la republica por el Honorable Presidente Rafael Leonidas Trujillo Molina', in Fernandez (ed.), Historia del feminismo, pp. 167-8.
8. See also, Elizabeth S. Manley, "El Freno Suave" Gender, Politics and Dictatorship in the Dominican Republic, 1928-1942', paper presented at the 2006 Meeting of the Latin American Studies Association, San Juan, Puerto Rico, 15-18 March 2006, pp. 9, 13 and 19.
9. The group's official name was Sección Femenina del Partido Trujillista adscrita al Partido Dominicano (The Feminine Wing of the Trujillo Party aligned with the Dominican Party). The Dominican Party was the political machinery Trujillo established in 1932. The Trujillo Party was created in 1940 as an inner party within the Dominican Party. The Trujillo Party made the official announcements of Trujillo's presidential candidacies.
10. See Robert Crassweller, Trujillo: The Life and Times of a Caribbean Dictator (New York: Macmillan, 1966), p. 194.
11. Crassweller, Trujillo, pp. 98-100, 193-4.
12. Eric Roorda, The Dictator Next Door (Durham: Duke University Press, 1998), pp. 41-2.
13. Manley, 'El Freno Suave', p. 19. For Nicaragua, Victoria González, 'Somocista Women, Right-Wing Politics, and Feminism in Nicaragua, 1936-1979', in Victoria González and Karen Kampwirth (eds), Radical Women in Latin America: Left and Right (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2001), pp. 41-78, here p. 73.
14. This brief biography summarises information in Antonio Zaglul, Despreciada en la vida y olvidada en la muerte: Biografía de Evangelina Rodríguez, la primera médica Dominicana (Santo Domingo: Editora Taller, 1997).
15. Perdita Huston, 'Andrea Evangelina Rodríguez (1879-1947)', in Perdita Huston (ed.), The Right to Choose: Pioneers inWomen's Health and Family Planning (London: Earthscan, 1992), pp. 10-23.
16. Fermín Alvarez Santana, Heroes anónimos: Cien años de magisterio en San Pedro deMacorís (San Pedro de Macorís: Club Rotario, 1997), pp. 44-5.
17. I borrow the term 'aspiring' from Michele Mitchell, Righteous Propagation: African Americans and the Politics of Racial Destiny after Reconstruction (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004), p. xx. As with African Americans in the Post-Reconstruction period, standard class labels do not apply to the Dominican Republic. Throughout the nineteenth century, Dominican society was divided between the traditional oligarchy and everyone else. By the late nineteenth century, however, 'everyone else' began to differentiate as the Dominican Republic entered the global market, capital accumulation occurred and cities grew. Merchants, professionals, intellectuals and government officials occupied an unstable middle ground between the very rich and the very poor. The term 'aspiring' captures both the nascent quality of this group, its tenuous existence and the process of class stratification taking place during this period in Dominican history.
18. Teresita Martínez-Vergne, Nation and Citizen in the Dominican Republic, 1880-1916 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2005), pp. 49-51.
19. See also, Louise Newman, White Women's Rights: The Racial Origins of Feminism in the United States (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), p. 10.
20. Anne McClintock, Imperial Leather: Race, Gender, and Sexuality in the Colonial Contest (London: Routledge, 1995), pp. 54-5.
21. Eileen J. Suárez Findlay, Imposing Decency: The Politics of Sexuality and Race in Puerto Rico, 1870-1920 (Durham: Duke University Press, 1999), pp. 68, 75.
22. Roberto Cassá, 'Nación y estado en el pensamiento de Américo Lugo', in Raymundo González, Michiel Baud, Pedro L. San Miguel and Roberto Cassá (eds), Política, identidad y pensamiento social en la República Dominicana, (Siglos XIX y XX) (Madrid: Doce Calles, 2003), pp. 105-30.
23. Lauren Derby, 'TheMagic of Modernity: Dictatorship and Civic Culture in the Dominican Republic, 1916-1962' (unpublished doctoral thesis, University of Chicago, 1998), p. 44.
24. On Trujillo's ability to cultivate loyalty, see Richard Turits, Foundations of Despotism: Peasants, the Trujillo Regime, and Modernity in Dominican History (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2003), pp. 7-8.
25. Until General Ulises Heureaux's dictatorship in 1889, the presidency switched hands six times. Arístedes Inchástegui, 'Cronología de gobiernos y gobernantes de la República Dominicana', Eme, Eme: Estudios dominicanos 6 (1978), pp. 3-14, here p. 8.
26. For an overview of nineteenth-century liberalismo, see Raymundo González, Michiel Baud, Pedro L. San Miguel and Roberto Cassá, 'Introducción', in González et al. (eds), Política, identidad y pensamiento social, pp. 3-39, esp. pp. 16-17.
27. Raymundo González, 'Ideología del progreso y campesinado en el Siglo XIX', Ecos (1993), pp. 25-43.
28. Turits, Foundations of Despotism, pp. 54-67.
29. Martínez-Vergne, Nation and Citizen in the Dominican Republic.
30. Findlay, Imposing Decency, pp. 53-4, 59-63.
31. Manuel Maldonado-Denis (ed.), Eugenio Maria de Hostos. America: The Struggle for Freedom (Santo Domingo: Editoria Corripio, 1992), pp. 16, 26, 29.
32. Quoted in Raymundo González, 'Hostos y la conciencia moderna en República Dominicana', in González et al. (eds), Política, identidad y pensamiento social, pp. 95-104, here p. 99.
33. Gabriela Mora, 'Hostos y la mujer', in Julio César López (ed.), Hostos: Sentido y proyección de su obra en América. Ponencias Presentadas en el Primer Encuentro Internacional sobre el Pensamiento de Eugenio María de Hostos (Río Piedras: Editorial de la Universidad de Puerto Rico, 1995), pp. 707-20.
34. See also, Irma N. Rivera Nieves, El tema de la mujer en el pensamiento social de Eugenio María de Hostos (Santo Domingo: Editora Corripio, 1992).
35. Lucía Guerra Cunningham, 'Feminismo e ideología liberal en el pensamiento de Eugenio María de Hostos', in Julio César López (ed.), Hostos: Sentido y proyeccion de su obra en América (San Juan, Puerto Rico: Instituto de Estudios Hostosianos, Editorial de la Universidad de Puerto Rico, 1995), pp. 361-74.
36. Leonides Santos y Vargas, 'Eugenio María de Hostos y la mujer', Revista salud y cultura 4 (1991), pp. 11-19.
37. Quoted in Ferreras, Historia del feminismo, pp. 100-01.
38. See also, Danilo de los Santos, 'El pensamiento y la institución educativa en la sociedad dominicana', Eme, Eme: Estudios dominicanos 6 (1978), pp. 40-124, here p. 88.
39. General Gregorio Luperón, Notas autobiográficas y apuntes históricos, vol. 2 (1939.
40. Santo Domingo: Central de Libros C por A, 1992), p. 322.
41. González et al. (eds), 'Introducción', p. 19.
42. Ferreras, Historia del feminismo, pp. 100, 113.
43. Alvarez Santana, Heroes anónimos, pp. 38-9.
44. Salomé Ureña's specific contributions to women's education and female reform remain woefully understudied. An interpretation of her life and significance in Dominican history is offered in Julia Alvarez, In the Name of Salomé (Chapel Hill, NC: Algonquin Books, 2000).
45. See Linzi Manicom, 'Ruling Relations: Rethinking State and Gender in South African History', Journal of African History 33 (1992), pp. 441-65, esp. pp. 456-9.
46. Elizabeth Dore, 'One Step Forward, Two Steps Back: Gender and States in the Long Nineteenth Century', in Elizabeth Dore and Maxine Molyneaux (eds), Hidden Histories of Gender and State in Latin America (Durham: Duke University Press, 2000), pp. 3-32.
47. Quoted in Yolanda Ricardo, Magisterio y creación: Los Henríquez Ureña (Santo Domingo: Academia de Ciencias de la República Dominicana, Editora Búho, 2003), p. 125.
48. As in the US during the same period: Paula Baker, 'The Domestication of Politics:WOmen and American Political Society, 1780-1920', A merican Historical Review 89 (1984), pp. 620-47, esp. pp. 640042.
49. Cynthia Jeffries Little, 'Education, Philanthropy, and Feminism: Components of Argentine Womanhood, 1860-1926', in Asunción Lavrin (ed.), Latin American Women: Historical Perspectives (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1978), pp. 235-54, esp. pp. 237-8.
50. Bonnie Frederick, 'Harriet Beecher Stowe and the Virtuous Mother. Argentina, 1852-1910', Journal of Women's History 18 (2006), pp. 101-20, esp. pp. 103-5.
51. Alvarez Santana, Heroes anónimos, pp. 64-6, 71-3, 94.
52. This argument builds on Glenda Elizabeth Gilmore, Gender and Jim Crow: Women and the Politics of White Supremacy in North Carolina, 1896-1920 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996), pp. 117-18.
53. See also, Findlay, Imposing Decency, pp. 53-76.
54. Susan Besse, Restructuring Patriarchy: The Modernization of Gender Inequality in Brazil, 1914-1940 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996), pp. 12-37.
55. Magali Roy Fequiere, 'Contested Territory: Puerto RicanWomen, Creole Identity, and Intellectual Life in the Early Twentieth Century', Callaloo 17 (1994), pp. 916-34, esp. pp. 916-18.
56. Ginetta E. B. Candelario, 'El eco de su voz allende a los mares: La primera etapa en el pensamiento feminista dominicano', in Candelario (ed.), Miradas desencadenantes, pp. 43-51, esp. pp. 44-5.
57. Mu-Kien A. Sang, Ulises Heureaux: Biografía de un dictador (Santo Domingo: INTEC, 1987), pp. 10-11.
58. Adriano Miguel Tejada, 'El Folklore como mecanismo de control político en Heureaux y Trujillo', Eme, Eme 6 (1978), pp. 19-39, here p. 25.
59. Cyrus Veeser, A World Safe for Capitalism (New York: Columbia University Press, 2002), pp. 59-61.
60. Manuel Richiez al Presidente delAyuntamiento de San Pedro deMacorís, 23November 1891, Legajo 5601 (7), Ayuntamiento de San Pedro de Macorís, Año 1891, Archivo General de la Nación, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic.
61. 'Mezclilla', El Cable, 13 May 1893, p. 1. I have not been able to locate the city council's original copy of this legislation.
62. Martínez-Vergne, Nation and Citizen, p. 56.
63. Findlay, Imposing Decency, pp. 78, 87.
64. Newman, White Women's Rights, p. 6.
65. Zaglul, Despreciada en la vida, pp. 41-6.
66. See also, Reunión del Honorable Ayuntamiento de San Pedro de Macorís el 17 de junio de 1904. Ayuntamiento de San Pedro de Macorís, Libros de Actas de Sesiones, Libro 8, 1 May 1903 - 31 July 1908. On this date, Rodríguez petitioned the city council for 25 pesos to enable her to move to Santo Domingo to continue her medical studies - the city council approved the donation. Hereafter, Libros de Actas de Sesiones.
67. Evangelina Rodríguez, Granos de polen (San Pedro de Macorís, 1915), pp. 185-7, 218.
68. Rodríguez, Granos de polen, pp. 68-9, 88, 92, 95-6.
69. Alys Eve Weinbaum, 'Writing Feminist Genealogy: Charlotte Perkins Gilman, Racial Nationalism, and the Reproduction of Maternalist Feminism', Feminist Studies 27 (2001), pp. 271-302, here p. 282. On positivism and scientific racism in Latin America, see Nancy Leys Stepan, 'The Hour of Eugenics': Race, Gender, and Nation in Latin America (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1991).
70. Rodríguez, Granos de polen, pp. 28-9, 35.
71. Amy Kaplan, The Anarchy of Empire in the Making of U.S. Culture (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2002), p. 4.
72. Bruce Calder, The Impact of Intervention: The Dominican Republic during the U.S. Occupation of 1916-1924 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1984), pp. 88-9.
73. For Puerto Rico, see Eileen J. Findlay, 'Love in the Tropics: Marriage, Divorce, and the Construction of Benevolent Colonialism in Puerto Rico, 1898-1910', in Gilbert Joseph, Catherine LeGrand and Ricardo Salvatore (eds), Close Encounters of Empire: Writing the Cultural History of U.S. Latin American Relations (Durham: Duke University Press, 1998), pp. 139-72, esp. pp. 140-41.
74. Laura Briggs, Reproducing Empire: Race, Sex, Science, and U.S. Imperialism in Puerto Rico (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002).
75. I thank one of the anonymous reviewers for this important insight.
76. Michael Gobat, Confronting the American Dream: Nicaragua under U.S. Imperial Rule (Durham: Duke University Press, 2005), pp. 175-201.
77. See also, Partha Chatterjee, The Nation and its Fragments: Colonial and Postcolonial Histories (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993), p. 68.
78. Quoted in Calder, The Impact of Intervention, pp. 88-9.
79. '9 Cosas', El Indice, Santiago, 1 September 1921, quoted in Derby, 'The Magic of Modernity', pp. 97-8.
80. 'Para laCalle', Renacimiento, 11May 1918, n.p. The photo of Zayas Bazán can be found in Renacimiento's special issue on San Pedro de Macorís, 28 May 1917, n.p.
81. Chatterjee, The Nation and its Fragments, pp. 75, 117.
82. Derby, 'The Magic of Modernity', pp. 109-11.
83. Federico Antonio García, 'La Moral y el Patriotismo', Listín Diario, 23 November 1920, p. 3. Emphasis in the original.
84. Chatterjee, The Nation and its Fragments, pp. 68, 132.
85. Francesca Miller, 'Latin American Women and the Transnational Arena', in Emilie Bergmann (ed.), Women, Culture, and Politics in Latin America (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992), pp. 10-27, esp. pp. 10-13.
86. Calder, The Impact of Intervention, p. 88.
87. On the Pan American Conference of Women, see June Hahner, Emancipating the Female Sex: The Struggle for Women's Rights in Brazil, 1850-1940 (Durham: Duke University Press, 1990), p. 139.
88. Judith N. McArthur and Harold Smith, Minnie Cunningham: A Suffragist's Life in Politics (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003), pp. 101-2.
89. League of Women Voters, 'The Provisional Pan American Association for the Advancement of Women'. Papers of the League of Women Voters, 1918-1974, Part III, Series A, National Office Subject Files, 1920-1932 Library of Congress, Washington, DC. My gratitude to Dr Christopher Clement for his research assistance.
90. Candelario, 'El eco de su voz', p. 47.
91. Petronila Angélica Gómez and Delia Weber (eds), Contribución para la historia del feminismo en la República Dominicana (Ciudad Trujillo [Santo Domingo]: Editora Librería Dominicana, 1952), pp. 23-5. This collection also contains editorials and articles originally printed in Fémina.
92. McClintock, Imperial Leather, p. 358.
93. Roxana Lucia Cheschebec, 'The "Unholy Marriage" of Feminism with Nationalism in Interwar Romania: The Discourse of Princess Alexandrina Cantacuzino', paper presented at the Fourth European Feminist Research Conference (October 2000), .
94. Petronila Angélica Gómez, 'Feminism', tr. Daisy Cocco de Filippis, reprinted in Cocco de Filippis (ed.), Documents of Dissidence, pp. 39-44, esp. pp. 42-3.
95. Ercilia Pepín, 'Diversas consideraciones relativas a la capacidad que tiene la mujer para adquirir una cultura integral en la misma intensidad que el hombre', speech given in Santiago de los Caballeros, July 1925, reprinted in William Galvan (ed.), Antología de Ercilia Pepín (Santo Domingo: Editora Universitaria, 1986), pp. 30-32.
96. Catherine E. Gray, 'Myths of the Bourgeois Woman: Rethinking Race, Class, and Gender', in Alejandro Lugo and Bill Maurer (eds), Gender Matters: Rereading Michelle Z. Rosaldo (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2000), pp. 185-220, here p. 206.
97. Leila Rupp, Worlds of Women, The Making of an International Women's Movement (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1997), pp. 52-69, 75.
98. Anne McClintock, '"No Longer in a Future Heaven": Nationalism, Gender, and Race', in Geoff Eley and Ronald Grigor Suny (eds), Becoming National: A Reader (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996), pp. 260-85, here p. 281.
99. Findlay, Imposing Decency, p. 67.
100. I am building on the arguments in Bernice L. Hausman, 'Sex before Gender: Charlotte Perkins Gilman and the Evolutionary Paradigm of Utopia', Feminist Studies 24 (1998), pp. 488-510, esp. pp. 490-91.
101. Quoted in Lusitania Martínez, 'Abigaíl Mejía y los inicios del movimiento feminista dominicano', in González et al. (eds), Política, identidad y pensamiento social, pp. 131-52, esp. pp. 150-51.
102. Abiganl Mejía to Madeline G. Silvain, Esq., 19 February 1934, reprinted in Fernández (ed.), Historia del feminismo en la República Dominicana, p. 38.
103. Martínez, 'Abigaíl Mejía', p. 152.
104. Livia Velóz, 'Fragment', in Cocco de Filippis (ed.), Documents of Dissidence, pp. 59-62, here pp. 61-2.
105. La Junta de la Acción Feminista Dominicana, 'Manifiesto de la "Acción Feminista Dominicana"', in Arístedes Incháustegui and Blanca Delgado Malagán (eds), Abigaíl Mejía: Obras Escogidas, vol. 2 (Santo Domingo: Editora Corripio [Secretaría del Estado de Educación, Bellas Artes y Cultos], 1995), pp. 541-2.
106. Velóz, 'Fragment', p. 61.
107. Ferreras, Historia del feminismo, pp. 143-9.
108. La Junta de la Acción Feminista Dominicana, 'Manifiesto', in Incháustegui and Delgado (eds), Abigaíl Mejía, p. 543. The collection includes two group pictures, one taken of the AFD's board of directors and another of the AFD's first national assembly: 'Junta superior de la directiva de la "Acción Feminista Dominicana"'; the second, 'Primera Asamblea Nacional de la "Acción Feminista Dominicana's, pp. 545-6. The dominance of light-skinned and white Dominicanwomen in Acción Feminista Dominicana becomes evident in these photos.
109. Asunción Lavrin, Women, Feminism and Social Change in Argentina, Chile, and Uruguay, 1890-1940 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1995), p. 4.
110. Margaret Power, Right-Wing Women in Chile: Feminine Power and the Struggle against Allende, 1964-1973 (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2002), p. xii.
111. Zaglul, Despreciada en la vida, pp. 19-23, 37, 41-6. The 'ProEvangelina Rodríguez' Committee petitioned the city to sponsor a scholarship to help Rodríguez finish her studies in Paris. The city council declined for lack of funds. Reunión del Honorable Ayuntamiento de San Pedro de Macoriś, 13 November 1924, Libros de Actas de Sesiones, Libro 15, 14 February 1924 - 23 November 1925.
112. Little is known about Rodríguez's views about eugenics, but recent research is shedding much-needed light on the subject: Ginetta E. B. Candelario, 'Despreciada de la vida: Queer Subjectivity and the Feminism of Evangelina Rodríguez', paper presented at the Meeting of the Latin American Studies Association, San Juan, Puerto Rico, 15-18 March 2006.
113. Reunión del Honorable Ayuntamiento de San Pedro de Móris, 3 May 1926, 6 May 1926 and 17 June 1926, Libros de Actas de Sesiones, Libro 16.
114. Reference to the Casa de Maternidad can be found in Reunión del Honorable Ayuntamiento de San Pedro deMacorís, 25 January 1929 and 6May 1930, Libros de Actas de Sesiones Libro 17.
115. Zaglul, Despreciada en la vida, pp. 81-4.
116. Reunión del Honorable Ayuntamiento de San Pedro de Macoriś 4 January 1929, 8 March 1929, 4 March 1931, 2 June 1931, Libros de Actas de Sesiones, Libro 17.
117. Huston, 'Andrea Evangelina Rodríguez', p. 16.
118. I borrow this notion of elite women as diplomats from Gilmore, Gender and Jim Crow, pp. 147-75.
119. Elizabeth Manley also argues that the AFD's ties with international feminist organisations, most notably the IACW (Inter-American Commission of Women), helped turn the tide in favour of female suffrage: Manley, 'El Freno Suave', pp. 11-14.
120. Crassweller, Trujillo, pp. 73-86, 193-5.
121. Roorda, The Dictator Next Door, pp. 192-229.
122. Jesús de Galíndez, La era de Trujillo (1956; Santo Domingo: Editorial Letra Gráfica, 2002).
123. Lauren (Robin) H. Derby, 'The Dictator's Seduction: Gender and State Spectacle during the Trujillo Regime', in William H. Beezley and Linda A. Curcio-Nagy (eds), Latin American Popular Culture (Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, 2000), pp. 213-39, esp. pp. 214, 216-18, 222, 230-31.
124. Roorda, The Dictator Next Door, pp. 127-36. On the development of anti-Haitian nationalism, see Robin Derby, 'Haitians, Magic, and Money: Raza and Society in the Haitian-Dominican Borderlands, 1900 1937'.
125. Comparative Study of Society and History 36 (1994), pp. 488-526.
126. Christian Krohn-Hansen, 'Magic, Money and Alterity among Dominicans', Social Anthropology 3 (1995), pp. 129-46.
127. Lauren (Robin) H. Derby and Richard Turits, 'Historias de terror y los terrores de la historia: La Masacre haitiana de 1937 en la República Dominicana', Estudios Sociales 26 (1993), pp. 65-76.
128. Eduardo Paulino, 'Erasing the Kreyol from the Margins of the Dominican Republic: The Pre- and Post-Nationalisation Project of the Border, 1930-1945', Wadabagei 8:2 (2005), pp. 35-72.
129. Andres Mateo, Mito y cultura en la Era de Trujillo (Santo Domingo: Librería La Trinitaria, 1993), pp. 72-6, 108-10.
130. Newman, WhiteWomen's Rights, p. 8.
131. Lauren (Robin) H. Derby, 'La seducción del dictador: Lo masculino y el espectáculo estatal durante la Era de Trujillo', in Ramonina Brea, Rosario Espinal and Fernando Valerio-Holguín (eds), La Republica Dominicana en el umbral de Siglo XXI (Santo Domingo: Editora Centenario, 1999), pp. 195-213.
132. Neici M. Zeller, 'El Régimen de Trujillo y la fuerza laboral femenina en la República Dominicana, 1945-1951', in Brea, Espinal and Valerio-Holguín (eds), La República Dominicana, pp. 429-44.
133. 'Leyes en favor de la mujer', in Fernández (ed.), Historia del feminismo, pp. 136-42.
134. Jocelyn Olcott, Revolutionary Women in Postrevolutionary Mexico (Durham: Duke University Press, 2005), pp. 18-22.
135. Michael Baud, 'Manuel Arturo Peña Battle y Joaquín Balaguer y la identidad dominicana', in González et al. (eds), Política, identidad y pensamiento social, pp. 153-80, esp. pp. 160-62, 174. For an important study of the contrast between Francoist Hispanidad and Dominican Hispanidad, see Meindart Fennema, 'Hispanidad y la identidad nacional de Santo Domingo', in the same volume, pp. 213-37.
136. Quoted in Martínez, 'Abigaíl Mejía', p. 148.
137. Gómez, 'Feminism', p. 39.
138. Sonia Alvarez, Engendering Democracy in Brazil: Women's Movements in Transition Politics (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990), p. 20.
139. Sylvia Chant with Nikki Craske, Gender in Latin America (London: Routledge, 2003), p. 25.
140. Roorda, The Dictator Next Door, p. 141.
141. Manley, 'El Freno Suave', p. 20.
142. Primer Congreso Femenino Dominicano. Sesión Plenaria de Clausura, 'Diario', 8 January 1943, in Fernández (ed.), Historia del feminismo, pp. 21-2.
143. I am building on the insights of Philip Cohen, 'Nationalism and Suffrage: Gender Struggle in Nation- Building America', Signs 21 (1996), pp. 707-27, here p. 708.
144. and Mary Nash, 'Un/Contested Identities: Motherhood, Sex Reform and the Modernisation of Gender Identity in Early Twentieth Century Spain', in Victoria Larée Enders and Pamela Beth Radcliff (eds), Constructing SpanishWomanhood: Female Identity in Modern Spain (Albany: SUNY Press, 1999), pp. 25-51 for Spain.
145. Zaglul, Despreciada en la vida, pp. 101-18.
146. Cohen, 'Nationalism and Suffrage', pp. 708-9.
147. K. Lynn Stoner, From the House to the Streets: The CubanWoman's Movement for Legal Reform (Durham: Duke University Press, 1991), p. 61.
148. I thank Carlos Decena for this formulation.