Writing feminist genealogy: Charlotte Perkins Gilman, racial nationalism, and the reproduction of maternalist feminism

Feminist Studies

Volumn 27, Issue 2, 2001, Pages 271-302

  Weinbaum, Alys Eve ^a  

^a NONE

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0039255595     PISSN: 00463663     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/3178758     Document Type: Review

References (110)

1. The Living of Charlotte Perkins Gilman: An Autobiography, introduction by Ann J. Lane (1935; Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1963), 8.
2. Friedrich Nietzsche, On the Genealogy of Morals, trans. Walter Kaufman and R. J. Hollingdale (1887; New York: Vintage, 1967), 15.
3. Gilles Deleuze, Nietzsche and Philosophy, trans. Hugh Tomlinson (New York: Columbia University Press, 1983), 2.
4. Of the nearly 100 texts on Gilman written in the past decade, at the time this article was accepted for publication, only seven offered sustained analyses of Gilman's race politics. See Susan S. Lanser, "Feminist Criticism, 'The Yellow Wallpaper,' and the Politics of Color in America," Feminist Studies 15 (fall 1989); 415-41; Mariana Valverde, "'When the Mother of the Race Is Free': Race, Reproduction, and Sexuality in First Wave Feminism," in Gender Conflicts: New Essays in Women's History, ed. Franca Iacovetta and MarianaValverde (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1992), 3-26; Gail Bederman, "'Not to Sex-But to Race!' Charlotte Perkins Gilman, Civilized Anglo-Saxon Womanhood, and the Return of the Primitive Rapist," in Manliness and Civilization: A Cultural History of Gender and Race in the United States, 1880-1917 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995), 121-69; Bernice L. Hausman, "Sex before Gender: Charlotte Perkins Gilman and the Evolutionary Paradigm of Utopia," Feminist Studies 24 (fall 1998): 489-510; Louise Newman, "Eliminating Sex Distinction from Civilization: The Feminist Theories of Charlotte Perkins Gilman and Mary Roberts Smith Coolidge," in White Women's Rights: The Racial Origins of Feminism in the United States (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 132-57; Tracy Fessenden, "Race, Religions, and the New Woman in America: The Case of Charlotte Perkins Gilman," Furman Studies 37 (June 1995): 15-28; and Lisa Ganobcsik-Williams, "The Intellectualism of Charlotte Perkins Gilman: Evolutionary Perspective on Race, Ethnicity, and Class," in Charlotte Perkins Gilman: Optimist Reformer, ed. Jill Rudd and Val Gough (Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 1999), 16-44.
5. Of the nearly 100 texts on Gilman written in the past decade, at the time this article was accepted for publication, only seven offered sustained analyses of Gilman's race politics. See Susan S. Lanser, "Feminist Criticism, 'The Yellow Wallpaper,' and the Politics of Color in America," Feminist Studies 15 (fall 1989); 415-41; Mariana Valverde, "'When the Mother of the Race Is Free': Race, Reproduction, and Sexuality in First Wave Feminism," in Gender Conflicts: New Essays in Women's History, ed. Franca Iacovetta and MarianaValverde (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1992), 3-26; Gail Bederman, "'Not to Sex-But to Race!' Charlotte Perkins Gilman, Civilized Anglo-Saxon Womanhood, and the Return of the Primitive Rapist," in Manliness and Civilization: A Cultural History of Gender and Race in the United States, 1880-1917 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995), 121-69; Bernice L. Hausman, "Sex before Gender: Charlotte Perkins Gilman and the Evolutionary Paradigm of Utopia," Feminist Studies 24 (fall 1998): 489-510; Louise Newman, "Eliminating Sex Distinction from Civilization: The Feminist Theories of Charlotte Perkins Gilman and Mary Roberts Smith Coolidge," in White Women's Rights: The Racial Origins of Feminism in the United States (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 132-57; Tracy Fessenden, "Race, Religions, and the New Woman in America: The Case of Charlotte Perkins Gilman," Furman Studies 37 (June 1995): 15-28; and Lisa Ganobcsik-Williams, "The Intellectualism of Charlotte Perkins Gilman: Evolutionary Perspective on Race, Ethnicity, and Class," in Charlotte Perkins Gilman: Optimist Reformer, ed. Jill Rudd and Val Gough (Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 1999), 16-44.
6. Of the nearly 100 texts on Gilman written in the past decade, at the time this article was accepted for publication, only seven offered sustained analyses of Gilman's race politics. See Susan S. Lanser, "Feminist Criticism, 'The Yellow Wallpaper,' and the Politics of Color in America," Feminist Studies 15 (fall 1989); 415-41; Mariana Valverde, "'When the Mother of the Race Is Free': Race, Reproduction, and Sexuality in First Wave Feminism," in Gender Conflicts: New Essays in Women's History, ed. Franca Iacovetta and MarianaValverde (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1992), 3-26; Gail Bederman, "'Not to Sex-But to Race!' Charlotte Perkins Gilman, Civilized Anglo-Saxon Womanhood, and the Return of the Primitive Rapist," in Manliness and Civilization: A Cultural History of Gender and Race in the United States, 1880-1917 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995), 121-69; Bernice L. Hausman, "Sex before Gender: Charlotte Perkins Gilman and the Evolutionary Paradigm of Utopia," Feminist Studies 24 (fall 1998): 489-510; Louise Newman, "Eliminating Sex Distinction from Civilization: The Feminist Theories of Charlotte Perkins Gilman and Mary Roberts Smith Coolidge," in White Women's Rights: The Racial Origins of Feminism in the United States (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 132-57; Tracy Fessenden, "Race, Religions, and the New Woman in America: The Case of Charlotte Perkins Gilman," Furman Studies 37 (June 1995): 15-28; and Lisa Ganobcsik-Williams, "The Intellectualism of Charlotte Perkins Gilman: Evolutionary Perspective on Race, Ethnicity, and Class," in Charlotte Perkins Gilman: Optimist Reformer, ed. Jill Rudd and Val Gough (Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 1999), 16-44.
7. Of the nearly 100 texts on Gilman written in the past decade, at the time this article was accepted for publication, only seven offered sustained analyses of Gilman's race politics. See Susan S. Lanser, "Feminist Criticism, 'The Yellow Wallpaper,' and the Politics of Color in America," Feminist Studies 15 (fall 1989); 415-41; Mariana Valverde, "'When the Mother of the Race Is Free': Race, Reproduction, and Sexuality in First Wave Feminism," in Gender Conflicts: New Essays in Women's History, ed. Franca Iacovetta and MarianaValverde (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1992), 3-26; Gail Bederman, "'Not to Sex-But to Race!' Charlotte Perkins Gilman, Civilized Anglo-Saxon Womanhood, and the Return of the Primitive Rapist," in Manliness and Civilization: A Cultural History of Gender and Race in the United States, 1880-1917 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995), 121-69; Bernice L. Hausman, "Sex before Gender: Charlotte Perkins Gilman and the Evolutionary Paradigm of Utopia," Feminist Studies 24 (fall 1998): 489-510; Louise Newman, "Eliminating Sex Distinction from Civilization: The Feminist Theories of Charlotte Perkins Gilman and Mary Roberts Smith Coolidge," in White Women's Rights: The Racial Origins of Feminism in the United States (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 132-57; Tracy Fessenden, "Race, Religions, and the New Woman in America: The Case of Charlotte Perkins Gilman," Furman Studies 37 (June 1995): 15-28; and Lisa Ganobcsik-Williams, "The Intellectualism of Charlotte Perkins Gilman: Evolutionary Perspective on Race, Ethnicity, and Class," in Charlotte Perkins Gilman: Optimist Reformer, ed. Jill Rudd and Val Gough (Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 1999), 16-44.
8. Of the nearly 100 texts on Gilman written in the past decade, at the time this article was accepted for publication, only seven offered sustained analyses of Gilman's race politics. See Susan S. Lanser, "Feminist Criticism, 'The Yellow Wallpaper,' and the Politics of Color in America," Feminist Studies 15 (fall 1989); 415-41; Mariana Valverde, "'When the Mother of the Race Is Free': Race, Reproduction, and Sexuality in First Wave Feminism," in Gender Conflicts: New Essays in Women's History, ed. Franca Iacovetta and MarianaValverde (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1992), 3-26; Gail Bederman, "'Not to Sex-But to Race!' Charlotte Perkins Gilman, Civilized Anglo-Saxon Womanhood, and the Return of the Primitive Rapist," in Manliness and Civilization: A Cultural History of Gender and Race in the United States, 1880-1917 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995), 121-69; Bernice L. Hausman, "Sex before Gender: Charlotte Perkins Gilman and the Evolutionary Paradigm of Utopia," Feminist Studies 24 (fall 1998): 489-510; Louise Newman, "Eliminating Sex Distinction from Civilization: The Feminist Theories of Charlotte Perkins Gilman and Mary Roberts Smith Coolidge," in White Women's Rights: The Racial Origins of Feminism in the United States (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 132-57; Tracy Fessenden, "Race, Religions, and the New Woman in America: The Case of Charlotte Perkins Gilman," Furman Studies 37 (June 1995): 15-28; and Lisa Ganobcsik-Williams, "The Intellectualism of Charlotte Perkins Gilman: Evolutionary Perspective on Race, Ethnicity, and Class," in Charlotte Perkins Gilman: Optimist Reformer, ed. Jill Rudd and Val Gough (Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 1999), 16-44.
9. Of the nearly 100 texts on Gilman written in the past decade, at the time this article was accepted for publication, only seven offered sustained analyses of Gilman's race politics. See Susan S. Lanser, "Feminist Criticism, 'The Yellow Wallpaper,' and the Politics of Color in America," Feminist Studies 15 (fall 1989); 415-41; Mariana Valverde, "'When the Mother of the Race Is Free': Race, Reproduction, and Sexuality in First Wave Feminism," in Gender Conflicts: New Essays in Women's History, ed. Franca Iacovetta and MarianaValverde (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1992), 3-26; Gail Bederman, "'Not to Sex-But to Race!' Charlotte Perkins Gilman, Civilized Anglo-Saxon Womanhood, and the Return of the Primitive Rapist," in Manliness and Civilization: A Cultural History of Gender and Race in the United States, 1880-1917 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995), 121-69; Bernice L. Hausman, "Sex before Gender: Charlotte Perkins Gilman and the Evolutionary Paradigm of Utopia," Feminist Studies 24 (fall 1998): 489-510; Louise Newman, "Eliminating Sex Distinction from Civilization: The Feminist Theories of Charlotte Perkins Gilman and Mary Roberts Smith Coolidge," in White Women's Rights: The Racial Origins of Feminism in the United States (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 132-57; Tracy Fessenden, "Race, Religions, and the New Woman in America: The Case of Charlotte Perkins Gilman," Furman Studies 37 (June 1995): 15-28; and Lisa Ganobcsik-Williams, "The Intellectualism of Charlotte Perkins Gilman: Evolutionary Perspective on Race, Ethnicity, and Class," in Charlotte Perkins Gilman: Optimist Reformer, ed. Jill Rudd and Val Gough (Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 1999), 16-44.
10. Of the nearly 100 texts on Gilman written in the past decade, at the time this article was accepted for publication, only seven offered sustained analyses of Gilman's race politics. See Susan S. Lanser, "Feminist Criticism, 'The Yellow Wallpaper,' and the Politics of Color in America," Feminist Studies 15 (fall 1989); 415-41; Mariana Valverde, "'When the Mother of the Race Is Free': Race, Reproduction, and Sexuality in First Wave Feminism," in Gender Conflicts: New Essays in Women's History, ed. Franca Iacovetta and MarianaValverde (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1992), 3-26; Gail Bederman, "'Not to Sex-But to Race!' Charlotte Perkins Gilman, Civilized Anglo-Saxon Womanhood, and the Return of the Primitive Rapist," in Manliness and Civilization: A Cultural History of Gender and Race in the United States, 1880-1917 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995), 121-69; Bernice L. Hausman, "Sex before Gender: Charlotte Perkins Gilman and the Evolutionary Paradigm of Utopia," Feminist Studies 24 (fall 1998): 489-510; Louise Newman, "Eliminating Sex Distinction from Civilization: The Feminist Theories of Charlotte Perkins Gilman and Mary Roberts Smith Coolidge," in White Women's Rights: The Racial Origins of Feminism in the United States (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 132-57; Tracy Fessenden, "Race, Religions, and the New Woman in America: The Case of Charlotte Perkins Gilman," Furman Studies 37 (June 1995): 15-28; and Lisa Ganobcsik-Williams, "The Intellectualism of Charlotte Perkins Gilman: Evolutionary Perspective on Race, Ethnicity, and Class," in Charlotte Perkins Gilman: Optimist Reformer, ed. Jill Rudd and Val Gough (Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 1999), 16-44.
11. Gilman was generally regarded as a trans-Atlantic celebrity; her works were translated into German, Dutch, Italian, Russian, Hungarian, and Japanese and were used as textbooks in a number of college classrooms. For the critical reception of Gilman's work by her contemporaries, see Joanne Karpinski, ed., Critical Essays on Charlotte Perkins Gilman (New York: G.K. Hall, 1992).
12. Gilman, cited in Ann J. Lane's introduction to Herland: A Lost Feminist Utopia (New York: Pantheon, 1979), ix.
13. Gilman's autobiography only sold 808 copies, and although it was reviewed, it was not critically assessed. It did not reappear in print until thirty years later.
14. Quotations from Ann J. Lane, To Herland and Beyond: The Life and Work of Charlotte Perkins Gilman (New York: Pantheon, 1990), 353. Also see Mary A. Hill, Charlotte Perkins Gilman: The Making of a Radical Feminist, 1860-1896 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1980), 6-8; and Larry Ceplair, ed., Charlotte Perkins Gilman: A Non-Fiction Reader (New York: Columbia University Press, 1991), 5.
15. Quotations from Ann J. Lane, To Herland and Beyond: The Life and Work of Charlotte Perkins Gilman (New York: Pantheon, 1990), 353. Also see Mary A. Hill, Charlotte Perkins Gilman: The Making of a Radical Feminist, 1860-1896 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1980), 6-8; and Larry Ceplair, ed., Charlotte Perkins Gilman: A Non-Fiction Reader (New York: Columbia University Press, 1991), 5.
16. Quotations from Ann J. Lane, To Herland and Beyond: The Life and Work of Charlotte Perkins Gilman (New York: Pantheon, 1990), 353. Also see Mary A. Hill, Charlotte Perkins Gilman: The Making of a Radical Feminist, 1860-1896 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1980), 6-8; and Larry Ceplair, ed., Charlotte Perkins Gilman: A Non-Fiction Reader (New York: Columbia University Press, 1991), 5.
17. Gilman, The Living of Charlotte Perkins Gilman, 1, 2.
18. Ibid., 3.
19. Critics disagree over whether Gilman was, strictly speaking, a reader of Darwin. Bederman and Newman suggest she was influenced by American popularizers of Darwin, especially Lester Frank Ward. Hausman argues that she blended Darwin with Spencer. Valverde suggests that she explicitly reworked Darwin.
20. Gilman's distinction between new and old immigrants coincides with the ideology of restrictionism. Restrictionists advocated limited immigration of particular national groups to the United States. As John Higham explains, "the major theoretical effort of restrictionists in the twentieth century consisted precisely in . . . the transformation of relative cultural differences into an absolute line of cleavage, which would redeem the Northwestern Europeans from the charges once leveled at them and explain the present danger of immigration in terms of the change in its sources." See Send These to Me: Immigrants in Urban America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1975; rev. ed., 1984), 44.
21. As one seventeenth-century source explains, "Robert, brother to Richard III was never married; but being charmed with the graceful mien of a young woman named Arlotta (whence 'tis said cam the word harlot) a skinner's daughter, . . . he took her for his mistress and by her had this William." See The British Biographical Archive, 1601-1929, ed. Paul Sieveking (London: K.G. Saur), microfiche 1170; and The Dictionary of National Biography, vol. 11 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1917), 293-301.
22. As one seventeenth-century source explains, "Robert, brother to Richard III was never married; but being charmed with the graceful mien of a young woman named Arlotta (whence 'tis said cam the word harlot) a skinner's daughter, . . . he took her for his mistress and by her had this William." See The British Biographical Archive, 1601-1929, ed. Paul Sieveking (London: K.G. Saur), microfiche 1170; and The Dictionary of National Biography, vol. 11 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1917), 293-301.
23. Gilman, The Living of Charlotte Perkins Gilman, 2 (my emphasis).
24. The first restrictive immigration legislation enacted by Congress (1875) banned prostitutes and convicts from entering the country. The Chinese Exclusion Act (1882), the first legislation proscribing the entrance of a nationally defined group, was followed by additional restrictions based on national origin. In 1924, for example, the Johnson-Reed Act set rigid quotas based on statistics gathered from the 1890 census. A commission created by the act concluded that there were 94.8 million whites in the population; and that of these, 41.3 million were of "colonial stock" and 53.5 million of "post-colonial" stock. The "Western Hemisphere" was excluded from all immigration acts enacted prior to 1965, when the United States began to actively curtail immigration from Mexico, Central and South America, and Canada. The entrance of the United States into war in 1917 coincided with a surge in nativist and restrictionist fervor. The Ku Klux Klan, which claimed over four million members at its height, was the largest nativist organization of the period. See Leonard Dinnerstein and David Reimers, Ethnic Americans: A History of Immigration and Assimilation (New York: Dodd, Mead & Co., 1975); Ronald Takaki, ed., From a Different Shore: Perspectives on Race and Ethnicity in America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987); Stephen Steinburg, The Ethnic Myth: Race, Ethnicity, and Class in America (Boston: Beacon Press, 1981); Oscar Handlin, ed., Immigration as a Factor in American History (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1959); and John Higham, Strangers in the Land: Patterns of American Nativism, 1860-1925 (New York: Athenaeum, 1967).
25. The first restrictive immigration legislation enacted by Congress (1875) banned prostitutes and convicts from entering the country. The Chinese Exclusion Act (1882), the first legislation proscribing the entrance of a nationally defined group, was followed by additional restrictions based on national origin. In 1924, for example, the Johnson-Reed Act set rigid quotas based on statistics gathered from the 1890 census. A commission created by the act concluded that there were 94.8 million whites in the population; and that of these, 41.3 million were of "colonial stock" and 53.5 million of "post-colonial" stock. The "Western Hemisphere" was excluded from all immigration acts enacted prior to 1965, when the United States began to actively curtail immigration from Mexico, Central and South America, and Canada. The entrance of the United States into war in 1917 coincided with a surge in nativist and restrictionist fervor. The Ku Klux Klan, which claimed over four million members at its height, was the largest nativist organization of the period. See Leonard Dinnerstein and David Reimers, Ethnic Americans: A History of Immigration and Assimilation (New York: Dodd, Mead & Co., 1975); Ronald Takaki, ed., From a Different Shore: Perspectives on Race and Ethnicity in America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987); Stephen Steinburg, The Ethnic Myth: Race, Ethnicity, and Class in America (Boston: Beacon Press, 1981); Oscar Handlin, ed., Immigration as a Factor in American History (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1959); and John Higham, Strangers in the Land: Patterns of American Nativism, 1860-1925 (New York: Athenaeum, 1967).
26. The first restrictive immigration legislation enacted by Congress (1875) banned prostitutes and convicts from entering the country. The Chinese Exclusion Act (1882), the first legislation proscribing the entrance of a nationally defined group, was followed by additional restrictions based on national origin. In 1924, for example, the Johnson-Reed Act set rigid quotas based on statistics gathered from the 1890 census. A commission created by the act concluded that there were 94.8 million whites in the population; and that of these, 41.3 million were of "colonial stock" and 53.5 million of "post-colonial" stock. The "Western Hemisphere" was excluded from all immigration acts enacted prior to 1965, when the United States began to actively curtail immigration from Mexico, Central and South America, and Canada. The entrance of the United States into war in 1917 coincided with a surge in nativist and restrictionist fervor. The Ku Klux Klan, which claimed over four million members at its height, was the largest nativist organization of the period. See Leonard Dinnerstein and David Reimers, Ethnic Americans: A History of Immigration and Assimilation (New York: Dodd, Mead & Co., 1975); Ronald Takaki, ed., From a Different Shore: Perspectives on Race and Ethnicity in America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987); Stephen Steinburg, The Ethnic Myth: Race, Ethnicity, and Class in America (Boston: Beacon Press, 1981); Oscar Handlin, ed., Immigration as a Factor in American History (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1959); and John Higham, Strangers in the Land: Patterns of American Nativism, 1860-1925 (New York: Athenaeum, 1967).
27. The first restrictive immigration legislation enacted by Congress (1875) banned prostitutes and convicts from entering the country. The Chinese Exclusion Act (1882), the first legislation proscribing the entrance of a nationally defined group, was followed by additional restrictions based on national origin. In 1924, for example, the Johnson-Reed Act set rigid quotas based on statistics gathered from the 1890 census. A commission created by the act concluded that there were 94.8 million whites in the population; and that of these, 41.3 million were of "colonial stock" and 53.5 million of "post-colonial" stock. The "Western Hemisphere" was excluded from all immigration acts enacted prior to 1965, when the United States began to actively curtail immigration from Mexico, Central and South America, and Canada. The entrance of the United States into war in 1917 coincided with a surge in nativist and restrictionist fervor. The Ku Klux Klan, which claimed over four million members at its height, was the largest nativist organization of the period. See Leonard Dinnerstein and David Reimers, Ethnic Americans: A History of Immigration and Assimilation (New York: Dodd, Mead & Co., 1975); Ronald Takaki, ed., From a Different Shore: Perspectives on Race and Ethnicity in America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987); Stephen Steinburg, The Ethnic Myth: Race, Ethnicity, and Class in America (Boston: Beacon Press, 1981); Oscar Handlin, ed., Immigration as a Factor in American History (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1959); and John Higham, Strangers in the Land: Patterns of American Nativism, 1860-1925 (New York: Athenaeum, 1967).
28. The first restrictive immigration legislation enacted by Congress (1875) banned prostitutes and convicts from entering the country. The Chinese Exclusion Act (1882), the first legislation proscribing the entrance of a nationally defined group, was followed by additional restrictions based on national origin. In 1924, for example, the Johnson-Reed Act set rigid quotas based on statistics gathered from the 1890 census. A commission created by the act concluded that there were 94.8 million whites in the population; and that of these, 41.3 million were of "colonial stock" and 53.5 million of "post-colonial" stock. The "Western Hemisphere" was excluded from all immigration acts enacted prior to 1965, when the United States began to actively curtail immigration from Mexico, Central and South America, and Canada. The entrance of the United States into war in 1917 coincided with a surge in nativist and restrictionist fervor. The Ku Klux Klan, which claimed over four million members at its height, was the largest nativist organization of the period. See Leonard Dinnerstein and David Reimers, Ethnic Americans: A History of Immigration and Assimilation (New York: Dodd, Mead & Co., 1975); Ronald Takaki, ed., From a Different Shore: Perspectives on Race and Ethnicity in America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987); Stephen Steinburg, The Ethnic Myth: Race, Ethnicity, and Class in America (Boston: Beacon Press, 1981); Oscar Handlin, ed., Immigration as a Factor in American History (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1959); and John Higham, Strangers in the Land: Patterns of American Nativism, 1860-1925 (New York: Athenaeum, 1967).
29. "Foreign immigration into this country," Walker wrote, amounts "not to a re-enforcement of our population, but to a replacement of native by foreign stock. . . . Whatever view may be taken of the past, no one surely can be enough of an optimist to contemplate without dread the fast rising flood of immigration now setting in upon our shores." See Francis Amasa Walker, "Immigration and Degradation," Forum 11 (August 1891): 642-43. Walker based his analysis on that of E.A. Ross; both argued that natives were unwilling to bring children into the world to compete with immigrants; as a result native laborers were emasculated in both the factory and the bedroom.
30. Linda Gordon, Woman's Body, Woman's Right: A Social History of Birth Control in America (New York: Grossman, 1976), 136-58.
31. E.A. Ross was the nephew of Lester Frank Ward, the prominent sociologist. Gilman met Ross through Ward and maintained contact with both men throughout her life. Ross included Gilman in a chapter of his autobiography entitled, "Celebrities I Have Known"; and Gilman wrote in her autobiography (187) that Ward was "quite the greatest man I have ever known . . . his Gynaecocentric Theory, first set forth in a Forum article in 1888, is the greatest single contribution to the world's thought since Evolution." Gilman refers to "Our Better Halves," Forum 6 (November 1888): 266-75.
32. E.A. Ross, "The Causes of Race Superiority," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 18 (July 1901): 85, 87, 88. The discourse of racial degeneration, of which "race suicide" is a part, reserves a special place for East Asians. Degeneration is not simply a synonym for biological inferiority but specifically indicates that Chinese and Japanese are from ancient civilizations long past their prime and thus overly evolved or decadent. Gilman follows Ross in viewing Chinese as especially degenerate. As Lanser convincingly argues, the color yellow in "The Yellow Wallpaper" is a symbol for Gilman's anxiety about "yellow peril." See Valverde, 14; and Lanser, 425-27.
33. E.A. Ross, "The Causes of Race Superiority," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 18 (July 1901): 85, 87, 88. The discourse of racial degeneration, of which "race suicide" is a part, reserves a special place for East Asians. Degeneration is not simply a synonym for biological inferiority but specifically indicates that Chinese and Japanese are from ancient civilizations long past their prime and thus overly evolved or decadent. Gilman follows Ross in viewing Chinese as especially degenerate. As Lanser convincingly argues, the color yellow in "The Yellow Wallpaper" is a symbol for Gilman's anxiety about "yellow peril." See Valverde, 14; and Lanser, 425-27.
34. E.A. Ross, "The Causes of Race Superiority," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 18 (July 1901): 85, 87, 88. The discourse of racial degeneration, of which "race suicide" is a part, reserves a special place for East Asians. Degeneration is not simply a synonym for biological inferiority but specifically indicates that Chinese and Japanese are from ancient civilizations long past their prime and thus overly evolved or decadent. Gilman follows Ross in viewing Chinese as especially degenerate. As Lanser convincingly argues, the color yellow in "The Yellow Wallpaper" is a symbol for Gilman's anxiety about "yellow peril." See Valverde, 14; and Lanser, 425-27.
35. In Letters from an American Farmer (1782; London: Penguin, 1986), Hector St. John de Crèvecoeur answers his own query as follows: America is a place where "individuals of all nations are melted into a new race of men"; an American is a "new man" containing that "strange mixture of blood that you will find in no other country" (69-70).
36. Charlotte Perkins Gilman, "Is America Too Hospitable?" Forum 70 (October 1923): 1983-89, rpt., Ceplair, 288-94. Quotation is from Ceplair, 289, 290.
37. Ibid., 290.
38. Ibid., 293. Gilman specifies that European "mongrelization" is especially pronounced among peoples from the Levant, and she singles out Poles as one of the least assimilable of all groups. Elsewhere, she focuses on the "mongrel" Irish or invokes Jews as a race eager to mix adversely with other races.
39. Ibid., 291 (my emphasis).
40. Werner Sollors discusses Horace Kallen's and Israel Zangwill's pluralism and outlines the development of the trope of the "melting pot," in Beyond Ethnicity: Consent and Descent in American Culture (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), 66-101.
41. Gilman, "Is America Too Hospitable?" 291.
42. Charlotte Perkins Gilman, "Immigration, Importation, and Our Fathers," Forerunner 5 (May 1914): 117-19, all quotations are on 118 (my emphasis).
43. In a prequel to the essay on colonization of new immigrants, Gilman lays out a similar scheme for the colonization of freewomen and freemen at the end of Reconstruction. See "A Suggestion on the Negro Problem," The American Journal of Sociology 14 (July 1908): 78-85.
44. The other fiction that receives enormous critical attention is "The Yellow Wallpaper." Lanser's work on this story stands as the single exception to the general point made above.
45. Quotation is from Ann J. Lane's introduction to The Charlotte Perkins Gilman Reader (New York: Random House, 1980), xxx. Lane expresses similar views in the introduction to her 1990 biography of Gilman: Gilman's "racist, anti-Semitic, and ethnocentric ideas . . . must reside primarily in the psychological realm, because the racist and nativist views that she held did not fit with the vision she espoused of radical social and political transformation" (Lane, To Herland and Beyond, 255).
46. Quotation is from Ann J. Lane's introduction to The Charlotte Perkins Gilman Reader (New York: Random House, 1980), xxx. Lane expresses similar views in the introduction to her 1990 biography of Gilman: Gilman's "racist, anti-Semitic, and ethnocentric ideas . . . must reside primarily in the psychological realm, because the racist and nativist views that she held did not fit with the vision she espoused of radical social and political transformation" (Lane, To Herland and Beyond, 255).
47. Mary Jo Deegan and Michael Hill, eds., With Her in Ourland: Sequel to "Herland" by Charlotte Perkins Gilman (Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 1997), 6. This novel was first serialized in Forerunner (1916).
48. Mary Jo Deegan and Michael Hill, eds., With Her in Ourland: Sequel to "Herland" by Charlotte Perkins Gilman (Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 1997), 6. This novel was first serialized in Forerunner (1916).
49. Gilman, Herland, 59.
50. Ibid., 49-61, 57, 54.
51. Ibid., 69.
52. Ibid., 75, 58, 94-95.
53. Herland adheres to established criteria for feminist utopian literature in that it contrasts the present with an idealized society, sees patriarchy "as a major cause of present social ills," and casts women as "the sole arbiters of their reproductive function" (Sally Miller Gearhart, quoted in Libby Falk Jones, "Gilman, Bradley, Piercy, and the Evolving Rhetoric of Feminist Utopia," in Feminism, Utopia, and Narrative, ed. Libby Falk Jones and Sarah Webster Goodwin [Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1990], 116).
54. Laura E. Donaldson, "The Eve of De-Struction: Charlotte Perkins Gilman and the Feminist Re-Creation of Paradise," Women's Studies 16 (1989): 379.
55. Elizabeth Keyser, "Looking Backward: From Herland to Gulliver's Travels," Studies in American Fiction 11 (spring 1983): 44.
56. E. Ann Kaplan, Motherhood and Representation: The Mother in Popular Culture and Melodrama (New York: Routledge, 1992), 131.
57. See among others, Frances Bartkowski, Feminist Utopias (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1989); Dorothy Berkson, "'So We All Became Mothers': Harriet Beecher Stowe, Charlotte Perkins Gilman, and the New World of Feminist Culture," in Feminism, Utopia, and Narrative, 100-15; Val Gough, "Lesbians and Virgins: The New Motherhood in Herland," in Anticipations: Essays on Early Science Fiction and Its Precursors, ed. David Seed (Syracuse: Syracuse Uuniversity Press, 1995), 195-215; Amanda Graham, "Herland: Definitive Ecofeminist Fiction?" in A Very Different Story: Studies on the Fiction of Charlotte Perkins Gilman, ed. Val Gough and Jill Rudd (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 1998), 115-28; Lou-Ann Matossian, "A Woman-Made Language: Charlotte Perkins Gilman and Herland," Women and Language 10 (spring 1987): 16-20; and Donaldson, 373-87. According to many science fiction scholars, Gilman anticipates feminist sci-fi greats such as Marion Zimmer Bradley, Suzy McKee Charnas, Ursula K. Le Guin, Vonda McIntyre, Sally Gearhart, Marge Piercy, Joanna Russ, and Octavia Butler. See Sarah Lefanu, In the Chinks of the World Machine: Feminism and Science Fiction (London: Women's Press, 1988), 53.
58. See among others, Frances Bartkowski, Feminist Utopias (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1989); Dorothy Berkson, "'So We All Became Mothers': Harriet Beecher Stowe, Charlotte Perkins Gilman, and the New World of Feminist Culture," in Feminism, Utopia, and Narrative, 100-15; Val Gough, "Lesbians and Virgins: The New Motherhood in Herland," in Anticipations: Essays on Early Science Fiction and Its Precursors, ed. David Seed (Syracuse: Syracuse Uuniversity Press, 1995), 195-215; Amanda Graham, "Herland: Definitive Ecofeminist Fiction?" in A Very Different Story: Studies on the Fiction of Charlotte Perkins Gilman, ed. Val Gough and Jill Rudd (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 1998), 115-28; Lou-Ann Matossian, "A Woman-Made Language: Charlotte Perkins Gilman and Herland," Women and Language 10 (spring 1987): 16-20; and Donaldson, 373-87. According to many science fiction scholars, Gilman anticipates feminist sci-fi greats such as Marion Zimmer Bradley, Suzy McKee Charnas, Ursula K. Le Guin, Vonda McIntyre, Sally Gearhart, Marge Piercy, Joanna Russ, and Octavia Butler. See Sarah Lefanu, In the Chinks of the World Machine: Feminism and Science Fiction (London: Women's Press, 1988), 53.
59. See among others, Frances Bartkowski, Feminist Utopias (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1989); Dorothy Berkson, "'So We All Became Mothers': Harriet Beecher Stowe, Charlotte Perkins Gilman, and the New World of Feminist Culture," in Feminism, Utopia, and Narrative, 100-15; Val Gough, "Lesbians and Virgins: The New Motherhood in Herland," in Anticipations: Essays on Early Science Fiction and Its Precursors, ed. David Seed (Syracuse: Syracuse Uuniversity Press, 1995), 195-215; Amanda Graham, "Herland: Definitive Ecofeminist Fiction?" in A Very Different Story: Studies on the Fiction of Charlotte Perkins Gilman, ed. Val Gough and Jill Rudd (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 1998), 115-28; Lou-Ann Matossian, "A Woman-Made Language: Charlotte Perkins Gilman and Herland," Women and Language 10 (spring 1987): 16-20; and Donaldson, 373-87. According to many science fiction scholars, Gilman anticipates feminist sci-fi greats such as Marion Zimmer Bradley, Suzy McKee Charnas, Ursula K. Le Guin, Vonda McIntyre, Sally Gearhart, Marge Piercy, Joanna Russ, and Octavia Butler. See Sarah Lefanu, In the Chinks of the World Machine: Feminism and Science Fiction (London: Women's Press, 1988), 53.
60. See among others, Frances Bartkowski, Feminist Utopias (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1989); Dorothy Berkson, "'So We All Became Mothers': Harriet Beecher Stowe, Charlotte Perkins Gilman, and the New World of Feminist Culture," in Feminism, Utopia, and Narrative, 100-15; Val Gough, "Lesbians and Virgins: The New Motherhood in Herland," in Anticipations: Essays on Early Science Fiction and Its Precursors, ed. David Seed (Syracuse: Syracuse Uuniversity Press, 1995), 195-215; Amanda Graham, "Herland: Definitive Ecofeminist Fiction?" in A Very Different Story: Studies on the Fiction of Charlotte Perkins Gilman, ed. Val Gough and Jill Rudd (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 1998), 115-28; Lou-Ann Matossian, "A Woman-Made Language: Charlotte Perkins Gilman and Herland," Women and Language 10 (spring 1987): 16-20; and Donaldson, 373-87. According to many science fiction scholars, Gilman anticipates feminist sci-fi greats such as Marion Zimmer Bradley, Suzy McKee Charnas, Ursula K. Le Guin, Vonda McIntyre, Sally Gearhart, Marge Piercy, Joanna Russ, and Octavia Butler. See Sarah Lefanu, In the Chinks of the World Machine: Feminism and Science Fiction (London: Women's Press, 1988), 53.
61. See among others, Frances Bartkowski, Feminist Utopias (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1989); Dorothy Berkson, "'So We All Became Mothers': Harriet Beecher Stowe, Charlotte Perkins Gilman, and the New World of Feminist Culture," in Feminism, Utopia, and Narrative, 100-15; Val Gough, "Lesbians and Virgins: The New Motherhood in Herland," in Anticipations: Essays on Early Science Fiction and Its Precursors, ed. David Seed (Syracuse: Syracuse Uuniversity Press, 1995), 195-215; Amanda Graham, "Herland: Definitive Ecofeminist Fiction?" in A Very Different Story: Studies on the Fiction of Charlotte Perkins Gilman, ed. Val Gough and Jill Rudd (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 1998), 115-28; Lou-Ann Matossian, "A Woman-Made Language: Charlotte Perkins Gilman and Herland," Women and Language 10 (spring 1987): 16-20; and Donaldson, 373-87. According to many science fiction scholars, Gilman anticipates feminist sci-fi greats such as Marion Zimmer Bradley, Suzy McKee Charnas, Ursula K. Le Guin, Vonda McIntyre, Sally Gearhart, Marge Piercy, Joanna Russ, and Octavia Butler. See Sarah Lefanu, In the Chinks of the World Machine: Feminism and Science Fiction (London: Women's Press, 1988), 53.
62. See among others, Frances Bartkowski, Feminist Utopias (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1989); Dorothy Berkson, "'So We All Became Mothers': Harriet Beecher Stowe, Charlotte Perkins Gilman, and the New World of Feminist Culture," in Feminism, Utopia, and Narrative, 100-15; Val Gough, "Lesbians and Virgins: The New Motherhood in Herland," in Anticipations: Essays on Early Science Fiction and Its Precursors, ed. David Seed (Syracuse: Syracuse Uuniversity Press, 1995), 195-215; Amanda Graham, "Herland: Definitive Ecofeminist Fiction?" in A Very Different Story: Studies on the Fiction of Charlotte Perkins Gilman, ed. Val Gough and Jill Rudd (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 1998), 115-28; Lou-Ann Matossian, "A Woman-Made Language: Charlotte Perkins Gilman and Herland," Women and Language 10 (spring 1987): 16-20; and Donaldson, 373-87. According to many science fiction scholars, Gilman anticipates feminist sci-fi greats such as Marion Zimmer Bradley, Suzy McKee Charnas, Ursula K. Le Guin, Vonda McIntyre, Sally Gearhart, Marge Piercy, Joanna Russ, and Octavia Butler. See Sarah Lefanu, In the Chinks of the World Machine: Feminism and Science Fiction (London: Women's Press, 1988), 53.
63. See among others, Frances Bartkowski, Feminist Utopias (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1989); Dorothy Berkson, "'So We All Became Mothers': Harriet Beecher Stowe, Charlotte Perkins Gilman, and the New World of Feminist Culture," in Feminism, Utopia, and Narrative, 100-15; Val Gough, "Lesbians and Virgins: The New Motherhood in Herland," in Anticipations: Essays on Early Science Fiction and Its Precursors, ed. David Seed (Syracuse: Syracuse Uuniversity Press, 1995), 195-215; Amanda Graham, "Herland: Definitive Ecofeminist Fiction?" in A Very Different Story: Studies on the Fiction of Charlotte Perkins Gilman, ed. Val Gough and Jill Rudd (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 1998), 115-28; Lou-Ann Matossian, "A Woman-Made Language: Charlotte Perkins Gilman and Herland," Women and Language 10 (spring 1987): 16-20; and Donaldson, 373-87. According to many science fiction scholars, Gilman anticipates feminist sci-fi greats such as Marion Zimmer Bradley, Suzy McKee Charnas, Ursula K. Le Guin, Vonda McIntyre, Sally Gearhart, Marge Piercy, Joanna Russ, and Octavia Butler. See Sarah Lefanu, In the Chinks of the World Machine: Feminism and Science Fiction (London: Women's Press, 1988), 53.
64. Gough includes a paragraph (197) noting the racism and classism that "characterized the kind of unified lesbian identity conceptualized by the largely white, middle-class lesbian feminism of the late 1970s"; she does not reflect on this observation in the context of Gilman's own work.
65. Gough, "Lesbians and Virgins," 196, 208, 197.
66. Ibid., 206.
67. Gilman, Herland, 15, 16-17.
68. The act of anthropologization resonated for turn-of-the-century feminists. As Bederman demonstrates (33-40), the 1893 World's Columbian Exhibition was a battleground for opposing sides debating the relative degree of civilization achieved by women and men. Rather than being situated inside the "civilized" section of the fair entitled the "White City," the Woman's Building was placed across from the exit to the "uncivilized" section of the fair, the "Midway," where native peoples and exotic artifacts were shown. Apparently aware of the struggle that had ensued over the placement of the Woman's Building, Gilman crafts Herland as equal to the "White City" of technology, science, and civilization and has one of the male intruders remark upon entry into Herland that it is "like an Exposition . . . too pretty to be true" (Herland, 19).
69. Keyser, 32-34. Christopher Wilson, "Charlotte Perkins Gilman's Steady Burghers: The Terrain of Herland," Women's Studies 12 (1986): 271, 283.
70. Keyser, 32-34. Christopher Wilson, "Charlotte Perkins Gilman's Steady Burghers: The Terrain of Herland," Women's Studies 12 (1986): 271, 283.
71. Sandra Gilbert, "Rider Haggard's Heart of Darkness" (124-38); and Susan Gubar, "She in Herland: Feminism as Fantasy" (138-58), in Coordinates: Placing Science Fiction and Fantasy, ed. George E. Slusser, Eric S. Rabkin, and Robert Scholes (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1983).
72. Sandra Gilbert, "Rider Haggard's Heart of Darkness" (124-38); and Susan Gubar, "She in Herland: Feminism as Fantasy" (138-58), in Coordinates: Placing Science Fiction and Fantasy, ed. George E. Slusser, Eric S. Rabkin, and Robert Scholes (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1983).
73. She is an example of the monstrous vision of femininity that Gilbert and Gubar examine in their famous study of the representation of women in Victorian fiction, The Madwoman in the Attic: The Woman Writer and the Nineteenth-Century Literary Imagi-nation (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1979).
74. Gubar, 140.
75. Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak analyzes this configuration in Gilbert's and Gubar's work on Jane Eyre, in "Three Women's Texts and a Critique of Imperialism," in Race, Writing, and Difference, ed. Henry Louis Gates Jr. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986), 262-80. My reading is indebted to hers.
76. Gubar, 149.
77. Gilman, Herland, 23.
78. Gilman discusses the suffragists' struggle to make Nevada into a "white" state, a state that on "the impressive map issued by the women suffragists . . . show[s] the color of our states in regard to this advance." In the suffragists' color-coded imaginary, black states are those that have resisted the cause and are thus atavistic. This cartography can be interpreted through the lens of feminist imperialism developed above. See Gilman's "Working to Make Black into White," Forerunner 5 (February 1914): 33-34.
79. Wilson, 271.
80. The following are among the works on the racism, imperialism, and colonialism endemic to feminism that inform my argument: Anna Davin, "Imperialism and Motherhood," History Workshop 5 (spring 1978): 9-65; Angela Davis, Women, Race, and Class (New York: Vintage, 1981); Jenny Sharpe, Allegories of Empire: The Figure of Woman in the Colonial Text (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1993); Anne McClintock, Imperial Leather: Race and Gender in the Colonial Contest (New York: Routledge, 1995); Vron Ware, Beyond the Pale: White Women, Racism, and History (London: Verso, 1992); and Newman. Amy Kaplan's work on the relationship of "the cult of domesticity" to nationalism and imperialism is especially relevant to any analysis of the contradictory relationships among these terms that is worked out in Herland. See Amy Kaplan, "Manifest Domesticity," American Literature 70 (September 1998): 581-606.
81. The following are among the works on the racism, imperialism, and colonialism endemic to feminism that inform my argument: Anna Davin, "Imperialism and Motherhood," History Workshop 5 (spring 1978): 9-65; Angela Davis, Women, Race, and Class (New York: Vintage, 1981); Jenny Sharpe, Allegories of Empire: The Figure of Woman in the Colonial Text (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1993); Anne McClintock, Imperial Leather: Race and Gender in the Colonial Contest (New York: Routledge, 1995); Vron Ware, Beyond the Pale: White Women, Racism, and History (London: Verso, 1992); and Newman. Amy Kaplan's work on the relationship of "the cult of domesticity" to nationalism and imperialism is especially relevant to any analysis of the contradictory relationships among these terms that is worked out in Herland. See Amy Kaplan, "Manifest Domesticity," American Literature 70 (September 1998): 581-606.
82. The following are among the works on the racism, imperialism, and colonialism endemic to feminism that inform my argument: Anna Davin, "Imperialism and Motherhood," History Workshop 5 (spring 1978): 9-65; Angela Davis, Women, Race, and Class (New York: Vintage, 1981); Jenny Sharpe, Allegories of Empire: The Figure of Woman in the Colonial Text (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1993); Anne McClintock, Imperial Leather: Race and Gender in the Colonial Contest (New York: Routledge, 1995); Vron Ware, Beyond the Pale: White Women, Racism, and History (London: Verso, 1992); and Newman. Amy Kaplan's work on the relationship of "the cult of domesticity" to nationalism and imperialism is especially relevant to any analysis of the contradictory relationships among these terms that is worked out in Herland. See Amy Kaplan, "Manifest Domesticity," American Literature 70 (September 1998): 581-606.
83. The following are among the works on the racism, imperialism, and colonialism endemic to feminism that inform my argument: Anna Davin, "Imperialism and Motherhood," History Workshop 5 (spring 1978): 9-65; Angela Davis, Women, Race, and Class (New York: Vintage, 1981); Jenny Sharpe, Allegories of Empire: The Figure of Woman in the Colonial Text (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1993); Anne McClintock, Imperial Leather: Race and Gender in the Colonial Contest (New York: Routledge, 1995); Vron Ware, Beyond the Pale: White Women, Racism, and History (London: Verso, 1992); and Newman. Amy Kaplan's work on the relationship of "the cult of domesticity" to nationalism and imperialism is especially relevant to any analysis of the contradictory relationships among these terms that is worked out in Herland. See Amy Kaplan, "Manifest Domesticity," American Literature 70 (September 1998): 581-606.
84. The following are among the works on the racism, imperialism, and colonialism endemic to feminism that inform my argument: Anna Davin, "Imperialism and Motherhood," History Workshop 5 (spring 1978): 9-65; Angela Davis, Women, Race, and Class (New York: Vintage, 1981); Jenny Sharpe, Allegories of Empire: The Figure of Woman in the Colonial Text (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1993); Anne McClintock, Imperial Leather: Race and Gender in the Colonial Contest (New York: Routledge, 1995); Vron Ware, Beyond the Pale: White Women, Racism, and History (London: Verso, 1992); and Newman. Amy Kaplan's work on the relationship of "the cult of domesticity" to nationalism and imperialism is especially relevant to any analysis of the contradictory relationships among these terms that is worked out in Herland. See Amy Kaplan, "Manifest Domesticity," American Literature 70 (September 1998): 581-606.
85. The following are among the works on the racism, imperialism, and colonialism endemic to feminism that inform my argument: Anna Davin, "Imperialism and Motherhood," History Workshop 5 (spring 1978): 9-65; Angela Davis, Women, Race, and Class (New York: Vintage, 1981); Jenny Sharpe, Allegories of Empire: The Figure of Woman in the Colonial Text (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1993); Anne McClintock, Imperial Leather: Race and Gender in the Colonial Contest (New York: Routledge, 1995); Vron Ware, Beyond the Pale: White Women, Racism, and History (London: Verso, 1992); and Newman. Amy Kaplan's work on the relationship of "the cult of domesticity" to nationalism and imperialism is especially relevant to any analysis of the contradictory relationships among these terms that is worked out in Herland. See Amy Kaplan, "Manifest Domesticity," American Literature 70 (September 1998): 581-606.
86. Fifteen dissertations on Gilman have been written in the last ten years, nine of these in the last five. There are two new scholarly editions of Women and Economics: Amy Aronson and Michael Kimmel, eds. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998), and Sheryl Meyering, ed. (Mineola, N.Y.: Dover, 1998). Recent anthologies, critical studies, and casebooks include Jill Rudd and Val Gough, eds., A Very Different Story (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 1988), and Charlotte Perkins Gilman: Optimist Reformer (1999); Sheryl Meyering, ed., Charlotte Perkins Gilman: The Woman and Her Work (Ann Arbor: UMI Research Press, 1989); Carol Farley Kessler, Charlotte Perkins Gilman: Her Progress toward Utopia with Selected Writings (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1995); Catherine Golden, ed., The Captive Imagination: A Casebook on "The Yellow Wallpaper" (New York: Feminist Press, 1992);
87. Fifteen dissertations on Gilman have been written in the last ten years, nine of these in the last five. There are two new scholarly editions of Women and Economics: Amy Aronson and Michael Kimmel, eds. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998), and Sheryl Meyering, ed. (Mineola, N.Y.: Dover, 1998). Recent anthologies, critical studies, and casebooks include Jill Rudd and Val Gough, eds., A Very Different Story (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 1988), and Charlotte Perkins Gilman: Optimist Reformer (1999); Sheryl Meyering, ed., Charlotte Perkins Gilman: The Woman and Her Work (Ann Arbor: UMI Research Press, 1989); Carol Farley Kessler, Charlotte Perkins Gilman: Her Progress toward Utopia with Selected Writings (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1995); Catherine Golden, ed., The Captive Imagination: A Casebook on "The Yellow Wallpaper" (New York: Feminist Press, 1992);
88. Fifteen dissertations on Gilman have been written in the last ten years, nine of these in the last five. There are two new scholarly editions of Women and Economics: Amy Aronson and Michael Kimmel, eds. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998), and Sheryl Meyering, ed. (Mineola, N.Y.: Dover, 1998). Recent anthologies, critical studies, and casebooks include Jill Rudd and Val Gough, eds., A Very Different Story (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 1988), and Charlotte Perkins Gilman: Optimist Reformer (1999); Sheryl Meyering, ed., Charlotte Perkins Gilman: The Woman and Her Work (Ann Arbor: UMI Research Press, 1989); Carol Farley Kessler, Charlotte Perkins Gilman: Her Progress toward Utopia with Selected Writings (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1995); Catherine Golden, ed., The Captive Imagination: A Casebook on "The Yellow Wallpaper" (New York: Feminist Press, 1992);
89. Fifteen dissertations on Gilman have been written in the last ten years, nine of these in the last five. There are two new scholarly editions of Women and Economics: Amy Aronson and Michael Kimmel, eds. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998), and Sheryl Meyering, ed. (Mineola, N.Y.: Dover, 1998). Recent anthologies, critical studies, and casebooks include Jill Rudd and Val Gough, eds., A Very Different Story (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 1988), and Charlotte Perkins Gilman: Optimist Reformer (1999); Sheryl Meyering, ed., Charlotte Perkins Gilman: The Woman and Her Work (Ann Arbor: UMI Research Press, 1989); Carol Farley Kessler, Charlotte Perkins Gilman: Her Progress toward Utopia with Selected Writings (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1995); Catherine Golden, ed., The Captive Imagination: A Casebook on "The Yellow Wallpaper" (New York: Feminist Press, 1992);
90. Fifteen dissertations on Gilman have been written in the last ten years, nine of these in the last five. There are two new scholarly editions of Women and Economics: Amy Aronson and Michael Kimmel, eds. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998), and Sheryl Meyering, ed. (Mineola, N.Y.: Dover, 1998). Recent anthologies, critical studies, and casebooks include Jill Rudd and Val Gough, eds., A Very Different Story (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 1988), and Charlotte Perkins Gilman: Optimist Reformer (1999); Sheryl Meyering, ed., Charlotte Perkins Gilman: The Woman and Her Work (Ann Arbor: UMI Research Press, 1989); Carol Farley Kessler, Charlotte Perkins Gilman: Her Progress toward Utopia with Selected Writings (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1995); Catherine Golden, ed., The Captive Imagination: A Casebook on "The Yellow Wallpaper" (New York: Feminist Press, 1992);
91. Fifteen dissertations on Gilman have been written in the last ten years, nine of these in the last five. There are two new scholarly editions of Women and Economics: Amy Aronson and Michael Kimmel, eds. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998), and Sheryl Meyering, ed. (Mineola, N.Y.: Dover, 1998). Recent anthologies, critical studies, and casebooks include Jill Rudd and Val Gough, eds., A Very Different Story (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 1988), and Charlotte Perkins Gilman: Optimist Reformer (1999); Sheryl Meyering, ed., Charlotte Perkins Gilman: The Woman and Her Work (Ann Arbor: UMI Research Press, 1989); Carol Farley Kessler, Charlotte Perkins Gilman: Her Progress toward Utopia with Selected Writings (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1995); Catherine Golden, ed., The Captive Imagination: A Casebook on "The Yellow Wallpaper" (New York: Feminist Press, 1992);
92. and Karpinski. Gilman's novels, Mag-Marjorie, Won Over, Benigna Machiavelli, Unpunished, With Her in Ourland, and Moving the Mountain, have all been republished in the last few years. Her diaries, love letters, poetry, and nonfiction have also been collected and anthologized for the first time.
93. See Denise D. Knight, ed., The Abridged Diaries of Charlotte Perkins Gilman (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1998),
94. The Diaries of Charlotte Perkins Gilman, vols. 1 and 2 (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1994),
95. and The Later Poetry of Charlotte Perkins Gilman (Newark: University of Delaware Press, 1996);
96. Mary Hill, ed., Journey from Within: The Love Letters of Charlotte Perkins Gilman, 1897-1900 (Lewisburg, Pa.: Bucknell University Press, 1995); and Ceplair. The list of journal articles is equally substantial.
97. Kimmel and Aronson, viii. Here Kimmel and Aronson situate themselves as historian Carl Degler's inheritors, as his earlier edition of Women and Economics also sought to present budding feminists with a foremother. See Charlotte Perkins Gilman, Women and Economics, ed. Carl Degler (New York: Harper & Row, 1966).
98. Kimmel and Aronson, viii. Here Kimmel and Aronson situate themselves as historian Carl Degler's inheritors, as his earlier edition of Women and Economics also sought to present budding feminists with a foremother. See Charlotte Perkins Gilman, Women and Economics, ed. Carl Degler (New York: Harper & Row, 1966).
99. Kimmel and Aronson, lxix.
100. Rudd and Gough, Charlotte Perkins Gilman: Optimist Reformer, xii.
101. Lane, "Charlotte Perkins Gilman and the Rights of Women: Her Legacy for the 1990s," 4, 5, 6.
102. Sandra Gilbert and Susan Gubar, "Fecundate! Discriminate!: Charlotte Perkins Gilman and the Theologizing of Maternity," in Rudd and Gough, Charlotte Perkins Gilman: Optimist Reformer, 215.
103. Ganobcsik-Williams, 16, 17, 22.
104. The Herland trilogy contains a third novel, Moving the Mountain, serialized in Forerunner (1911), and reprinted in Minna Doskow, ed., Charlotte Perkins Gilman's Utopian Novels (Cranbury, N.J.: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1999). This first installment is a utopian tale that expands on Edward Bellamy's national socialist classic, Looking Backward (1889) by recasting the United States in a feminist mold. As in Looking Backward, the narrator, a Rip Van Winkle figure, emerges after thirty years to find himself in an entirely transformed society. Although this new nation is neither parthenogenic nor exclusively female it has finally "bred out" all undesirable individuals and cultural habits through the implementation of an accelerated evolutionary process that is at once biological and sociological. In Gilman's newfound America there is no need for immigration restriction because these plans have been rendered obsolete through other exercises in eugenic perfection. As the novel's heroine explains, Americans "have [finally] discovered as many ways of utilizing human waste as [they have found] . . . for the waste products of coal." Those that are reformable are reformed as in the Americanization colonies that Gilman had earlier proposed. Alleged idiots, diseased degenerates, criminals, and perverts are killed off or subjected to compulsory sterilization, and syphilitic men are similarly prohibited from reproducing.
105. The Herland trilogy contains a third novel, Moving the Mountain, serialized in Forerunner (1911), and reprinted in Minna Doskow, ed., Charlotte Perkins Gilman's Utopian Novels (Cranbury, N.J.: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1999). This first installment is a utopian tale that expands on Edward Bellamy's national socialist classic, Looking Backward (1889) by recasting the United States in a feminist mold. As in Looking Backward, the narrator, a Rip Van Winkle figure, emerges after thirty years to find himself in an entirely transformed society. Although this new nation is neither parthenogenic nor exclusively female it has finally "bred out" all undesirable individuals and cultural habits through the implementation of an accelerated evolutionary process that is at once biological and sociological. In Gilman's newfound America there is no need for immigration restriction because these plans have been rendered obsolete through other exercises in eugenic perfection. As the novel's heroine explains, Americans "have [finally] discovered as many ways of utilizing human waste as [they have found] . . . for the waste products of coal." Those that are reformable are reformed as in the Americanization colonies that Gilman had earlier proposed. Alleged idiots, diseased degenerates, criminals, and perverts are killed off or subjected to compulsory sterilization, and syphilitic men are similarly prohibited from reproducing.
106. As the novel's refrain reminds readers, American women have finally learned "to make a new kind of people" (Charlotte Perkins Gilman's Utopian Novels, 79, 223).
107. Gilman, With Her in Ourland, 109, 143.
108. This novel's argument is prefigured in "The New Mothers of a New World," which advocates a union of mothers as a check to the advance of "the man-made world." Far from being a plan for a coalition of the exploited women of the globe, however, this is a strategy for white women's reproduction of the globe's citizenry. As Gilman explains on behalf of the New Mothers: We are tired of men's wars. We are tired of men's quarrels. We are tired of men's competition. We are tired of men's crimes and vices and the disease they bring upon us. . . . The pressure of population shall cease. We will marry only clean men, fit to be fathers. . . . We will breed a better stock on earth by proper selection-that is a mother's duty! . . . We will work together, the women of the race, for a higher human type. . . . We will be the New Mothers of a New World. Clearly not all women are included in Gilman's "We"; rather, it is white women who will reproduce a "purified" stock, imperialistically imposing "pure" genealogy on the globe. See Gilman's "The New Mothers of a New World," Forerunner 4 (June 1913): 149.
109. Deegan and Hill, 5, 9, 6, 30, 14, 46.
110. Michel Foucault, "Nietzsche, Genealogy, History," in The Foucault Reader, ed. Paul Rabinow (New York: Pantheon, 1984), 88.