The late loyalists: Northern reflections of the early American republic

Journal of the Early Republic

Volumn 27, Issue 1, 2007, Pages 1-34

  Taylor, Alan ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 46849084781     PISSN: 02751275     EISSN: 15530620     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/jer.2007.0016     Document Type: Article

References (139)

1. For the continental approach see Alan Taylor, James F. Brooks, Elizabeth A. Fenn, and Andrés Reséndez, "Continental Possessions," Journal of the Early Republic 24 (Summer 2004), 159-188
2. Gordon S. Wood, The Radicalism of the American Revolution (New York, 1992), 229-70
3. Isaac Kramnick, Republicanism and Bourgeois Radicalism: Political Ideology in Late Eighteenth-Century England and America (Ithaca, NY, 1990), 1-39
4. Gerald M. Craig, Upper Canada: The Formative Years, 1784-1841 (Toronto, ON, 1963), 15-19
5. "Discussion of Petitions and Counter Petitions," in Shortt and Doughty, eds., Documents Relating to the Constitutional History of Canada, 983-86 (quotations 982 and 983)
6. S. R. Mealing, "John Graves Simcoe," Dictionary of Canadian Biography (Toronto, ON, 1983), 5: 754-59
7. Elizabeth Mancke, "Another British America: A Canadian Model for the Early Modern British Empire," Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 25 (Jan. 1997), 1-36
8. Craig, Upper Canada, 35-38
9. Douglas McCalla, Planting the Province: The Economic History of Upper Canada, 1784-1870 (Toronto, ON, 1992), 249
10. David Maldwyn Ellis, "The Rise of the Empire State, 1790-1820," New York History 56 (1975), 5-6
11. James Macauley, The Natural, Statistical and Civil History of the State of New-York (3 vols., New York, 1829), 1: 417-18
12. J. David Wood, Making Ontario: Agricultural Colonization and Landscape Re-Creation before the Railway (Montreal, QC, 2000), 22-28
13. McCalla, Planting the Province, 15-17
14. Donald G. Creighton, The Empire of the St. Lawrence, 1760-1850 (Toronto, ON, 1956), 116-23
15. Fred Landon, Western Ontario and the American Frontier (Toronto, ON, 1941), 16
16. Simcoe to Dundas, June 30, 1791, in Cruikshank, ed., Correspondence of Simcoe, 1: 27
17. Dorchester to Grenville, Feb. 8, 1790, in Shortt and Doughty, eds., Documents Relating to the Constitutional History of Canada, 1759-1791, 1004
18. Simcoe, "Proclamation," Feb. 7, 1792, in Cruikshank, ed., Correspondence of Simcoe, 1: 108
19. Lillian F. Gates, Land Policies of Upper Canada (Toronto, ON, 1968), 28
20. E. A. Cruikshank, ed., "Petitions for Grants of Land, 1792-6," Ontario Historical Society, Papers and Records 24 (1927), 17
21. For prices in the United States see David Maldwyn Ellis, Landlords and Farmers in the Hudson-Mohawk Region, 1790-1850 (Ithaca, NY, 1946), 25
22. Paul D. Evans, The Holland Land Company (Buffalo, NY, 1924), 45
23. Malcolm J. Rohrbough, The Land Office Business: The Settlement and Administration of American Public Lands, 1789-1837 (New York, 1968), 10
24. For New York's land sales see Alfred F. Young, The Democratic Republicans of New York: The Origins, 1763-1797 (Chapel Hill, NC, 1967), 237
25. Grenville to Dorchester, Oct. 20, 1789, in Shortt and Doughty, eds., Documents Relating to the Constitutional History of Canada, 1759-1791, 974
26. Simcoe to Dundas, Feb. 16, 1792, in Cruikshank, ed., Correspondence of Simcoe, 1: 113
27. Michael Smith, A Geographical View of the Province of Upper Canada, and Promiscuous Remarks Upon the Government (Hartford, CT, 1813), 58
28. "Discussion of Petitions and Counter Petitions Re Change of Government in Canada [1789]," in Shortt and Doughty, eds., Documents Relating to the Constitutional History of Canada, 1759-1791, 985-86
29. "An Act for Laying and Collecting of Assessments and Rates," Upper Canada Gazette, July 25, 1793
30. Isaac Weld, Travels Through the States of North America, (2 vols., New York, 1968), 1: 373
31. [Anonymous], "Canadian Letters: Description of a Tour thro' the Provinces of Lower and Upper Canada in the Course of the Years 1792 and '93," Canadian Antiquarian and Numismatic Journal 9 (July-Oct. 1912), 126
32. Smith, Geographical View, 60
33. Patrick C. T. White, ed., Lord Selkirk's Diary, 1803-1804: A Journal of His Travels in British North America, and the Northeastern United States (Toronto, ON, 1958), 184
34. The American emigrant is quoted in John Maude, Visit to the Falls of Niagara in 1800 (London, UK, 1826), 60
35. For New York's tax rate on land see Young, Democratic Republicans of New York, 27, 61
36. For the ideology of Loyalism and the British Constitution, see David Mills, The Idea of Loyalty in Upper Canada, 1784-1850 (Kingston, ON, 1988), 15
37. Janice Potter, The Liberty We Seek: Loyalist Ideology in Colonial New York and Massachusetts (Cambridge, MA, 1983), 16-26, 35-36, 55-59, 172, 180
38. Jeffrey L. McNairn, The Capacity to Judge: Public Opinion and Deliberative Democracy in Upper Canada, 1791-1854 (Toronto, ON, 2000), 16-26
39. Alfred Leroy Burt, The Old Province of Quebec (2 vols., Toronto, ON, 1968), 2: 116-58
40. Leslie F. S. Upton, The Loyal Whig: William Smith of New York and Quebec (Toronto, ON, 1969), 150-1, 167
41. Harry H. Guest, "Upper Canada's First Political Party," Ontario History 54 (Dec, 1962), 275
42. F. Murray Greenwood, Legacies of Fear: Law and Politics in Quebec in the Era of the French Revolution (Toronto, ON, 1993), 43-44
43. Greenwood, Legacies of Fear, 45
44. Richard L. Bushman, King and People in Provincial Massachusetts (Chapel Hill, NC, 1985), 118-125, 137-38, 155-62, 165, 169-75
45. Potter, Liberty We Seek, 172
46. McCalla, Planting the Province, 17-19, 352n27
47. Gates, Land Policies, 24-25, 303
48. Bushman, King and People, 85-86
49. Edmund S. Morgan, Inventing the People: The Rise of Popular Sovereignty in England and America (New York, 1988), 239-62
50. Gates, Land Policies, 35-36
51. J. K. Johnson, Becoming Prominent: Regional Leadership in Upper Canada, 1791-1841 (Kingston, ON, 1989), 79
52. John Garner, The Franchise and Politics in British North America, 1755-1867 (Toronto, ON, 1969), 82-90
53. For the republican innovations in representation, see Morgan, Inventing the People, 239-62
54. Gordon S. Wood, The Creation of the American Republic, 1776-1787 (Chapel Hill, NC, 1969), 162-96
55. Jane Errington, The Lion, the Eagle, and Upper Canada: A Developing Colonial Ideology (Montreal, QC, 1987), 29-32
56. Smith to Askin, Oct. 2, 1792, in Cruikshank, ed., Correspondence of Simcoe, 1: 231-32
57. William Renwick Riddell, ed., La Rochefoucault-Liancourt's Travels in Canada, 1795, With Annotations and Strictures by Sir David William Smith (Toronto, ON, 1917), 51
58. Wood, Radicalism of the American Revolution, 287-305
59. For the reactionary nature of the postwar empire, see C. A. Bayly, Imperial Meridian: The British Empire and the World, 1780-1830 (London, UK, 1989), 1-15
60. Eliga H. Gould, "American Independence and Britain's Counter-Revolution," Past and Present, no. 154 (Feb. 1997), 107-41
61. Young, Democratic Republicans of Mew York, 17-22
62. Patricia U. Bonomi, A Factious People: Politics and Society in Colonial New York (New York, 1971), 34-39, 114-15
63. Nicholas Varga, "Election Procedures and Practices in Colonial New York," New York History 41 (1960), 249-77
64. Edward Countryman, A People in Revolution: The American Revolution and Political Society in New York, 1760-1790 (Baltimore, MD, 1981), 76-79, 166-69
65. Horatio Gates Spafford, A Gazetteer of the State of New York (Albany, NY, 1813), 25-28
66. For New York's population growth, see Benjamin Franklin Hough, ed., Census of the State of New-York for 1855 (Albany, NY, 1857), xii
67. John Cosens Ogden, "A Tour Through Upper and Lower Canada By a Citizen of the United States ... [1794]," The Magazine of History With Notes and Queries, Extra Number 56 (Tarrytown, NY, 1917), 50
68. Riddell, ed., La Rochefoucault-Liancourt's Travels in Canada, 75
69. W. S. Wallace, "The First Journalists in Upper Canada," Canadian Historical Review 26 (Dec. 1945), 372-81
70. Douglas G. Lochhead, "Silvester Tiffany," Dictionary of Canadian Biography 5 (1983), 814-15
71. "To the Public," Niagara Herald, Aug. 1, 1801
72. For Gideon Tiffany's singing, see Henry Weishuhn to Russell, Mar. 13, 1799, in Peter Russell Papers, Box 3, Baldwin Room, MTL
73. For libel law, see McNairn, Capacity to Judge, 139
74. For the sedition act, see Carol Wilton, Popular Politics and Political Culture in Upper Canada, 1800-1850 (Montreal, QC, 2000), 12
75. Eric Hinderaker, Elusive Empires: Constructing Colonialism in the Ohio Valley, 1673-1800 (New York, 1997), 260-61
76. Marilyn C. Baseler, "Asylum for Mankind": America, 1607-1800 (Ithaca, NY, 1998), 254-55
77. Landon, Western Ontario, 1, 17-20
78. Alfred Leroy Burt, The United States, Great Britain, and British North America from the Revolution to the Establishment of Peace After the War of 1812 (New Haven, CT, 1940), 180-82
79. Marcus Lee Hansen and John Bartlet Brebner, The Mingling of the Canadian and American Peoples (New Haven, CT, 1940), 87
80. Wood, Making Ontario, 23-27
81. David W. Smith, Report, Jan. 30, 1796, Surveyor General's Reports, Crown Lands, Record Group 1, A- II - 1, Reel #MS -3696, 1: 33, AO. The numbers do not all add up to 250 because of missing data for some variables: in 21 cases for origin; 21 cases for age; in 45 cases for occupational status. The percentages given exclude the cases that do not provide data for that variable. The British emigrants came from Ireland (27), Scotland (12), and England (12). Another 16 emigrants came from Germany (8), Bermuda (1), Nova Scotia (1), Lower Canada (5), and Spain (1)
82. John Cosens Ogden, Tour Through Upper and Lower Canada (Tarrytown, NY, 1999), 34
83. For literacy rates in the early republic, see Kenneth A. Lockridge, Literacy in Colonial New England: An Enquiry into the Social Context of Literacy in the Early Modern West (New York, 1974)
84. Smith, Geographical View, iii; Francis Gore to William Windham, Oct. 1, 1806, in Douglas Brymner, ed., Report on Canadian Archives, 1892 (Ottawa, ON, 1893), 37
85. Gates, Land Policies of Upper Canada, 30-31
86. For the perils and costs of St. Lawrence transportation, see Patrick Campbell, Travels in the Interior Inhabited Parts of North America in the Years 1791 and 1792 (Toronto, ON, 1937), 121-22
87. [Anonymous], "Canadian Letters," 88-89, 113-16
88. Elmsley to Russell, Nov. 26, 1797, in Cruikshank, ed., Correspondence of ... Peter Russell, 2: 26
89. Gray, ed., "From Bethlehem," 121, 125
90. Campbell, Travels in the Interior, 136
91. For civil society and the public sphere, see John L. Brooke, "Consent, Civil Society, and the Public Sphere in the Age of Revolution and the Early American Republic," in Beyond the Founders: New Approaches to the Political History of the Early American Republic, ed. Jeffrey L. Pasley, Andrew W. Robertson, and David Waldstreicher (Chapel Hill, NC, 2004), 207-38
92. Robert Lochiel Fraser, "Benajah Mallory," Dictionary of Canadian Biography (Toronto, ON, 1985), 8: 606-8
93. R. C. Muir, "Burford's First Settler, Politician, and Military Man - Benajah Mallory," Ontario Historical Society Papers and Records 26 (1930), 492-95
94. W. R. Riddell, "Benajah Mallory, Traitor," Ontario Historical Society Papers and Records 26 (1930), 573-75
95. Lewis J. Burkholder, A Brief History of the Mennonites in Ontario (n.p., 1935), 21-22
96. E. Morris Sider, "Early Years of Tunkers," Ontario History 51 (Spring 1959), 121-24
97. Charles M. Johnston, "An Outline of Early Settlement in the Grand River Valley," Ontario History 54 (Mar. 1962), 55-57
98. Landon, Western Ontario, 19-20
99. For the majoritarian, republican threat to minority communities see William H. Nelson, The American Tory (Boston, MA, 1964), 90-91
100. Mancke, "Another British Empire," 5, 17
101. Johnston, "An Outline," 55-57
102. Linda Colley, Captives (New York, 2002), 234-38
103. Edward Countryman, "Indians, the Colonial Order, and the Social Significance of the American Revolution," William and Mary Quarterly 53 (Apr. 1996), 342-62
104. For ethnic clustering in Upper Canada see White, ed., Lord Selkirk's Diary, 173, 198
105. Gray, ed., "From Bethlehem," 112, 121, 125
106. Errington, The Lion, 14-15, 18, 22-23
107. Campbell, Travels, 19-20
108. Simcoe to Dundas, Feb. 23, 1794, in Cruikshank, ed., Correspondence of Simcoe, 2: 162
109. David W. Smith, A Short Topographical Description of His Majesty's Province of Upper Canada, in North America (London, UK, 1799), 34-35
110. Stevenson to Simcoe, Apr. 27, 1793, in Cruikshank, ed., Correspondence of Simcoe, 1: 319
111. Maude, Visit to Niagara, 60
112. Isaac Weld, Travels, 2: 172, 174
113. Errington, The Lion, 51
114. Garner, The Franchise, 86
115. Smith, Geographical View, iii (quotation), 211-12
116. Burt, The United States, Great Britain, 181-83
117. Riddell, ed., La Rochefoucault-Liancourt's Travels, 36, 58
118. William N. Fenton, ed., "The Journal of James Emlen Kept on a Trip to Canandaigua, New York, September 15 to October 30, 1794," Ethnohistory 12 (Fall 1965), 293
119. Mills, Idea of Loyalty, 21
120. White, ed., Lord Selkirk's Diary, 141
121. Graeme H. Patterson, "Whiggery, Nationality, and the Upper Canadian Reform Tradition," Canadian Historical Review 56 (Mar. 1975), 25-44
122. For the analysis of the assembly members, see J. K. Johnson, Becoming Prominent, 121-26
123. For the assembly's weakness, see also Wilton, Popular Politics and Political Culture, 10-11
124. Landon, Western Ontario, 23, 29-30
125. George Sheppard, Plunder, Profit, and Paroles: A Social History of the War of 1812 in Upper Canada (Montreal, QC, 1994), 79-91, 98
126. Donald E. Graves, "The Canadian Volunteers, 1813-1815," Military Collector and Historian 31 (1979), 113-17
127. Sheppard, Plunder, Profit, and Paroles, 71-75
128. For the Indian role in defending Upper Canada, see Carl Benn, The Iroquois in the War of 1812 (Toronto, ON, 1998)
129. Mills, The Idea of Loyalty, 25-29
130. Powell, "First Days in Upper Canada," William Dummer Powell Papers, 3: 1044, Manuscript Group 23 H I 4, LAC
131. Richard White, "It's Your Misfortune and None of My Own": A History of the American West (Norman, OK, 1991), 64-69
132. Andrés Reséndez, Changing National Identities at the Frontier: Texas and New Mexico, 1800-1850 (New York, 2005), 146-70
133. S. F. Wise, "Upper Canada and the Conservative Tradition," in Wise, ed., God's Peculiar Peoples: Essays on Political Culture in Nineteenth-Century Canada (Ottawa, ON, 1993), 169-84
134. Gad Horowitz, "Conservatism, Liberalism, and Socialism in Canada: An Interpretations," in Canada's Origins: Liberal, Tory, or Republican, ed. Janet Ajzenstat and Peter J. Smith (Ottawa, ON, 1995), 21-44
135. Peter J. Smith, "The Ideological Origins of Canadian Confederation," and Smith, "Civic Humanism Versus Liberalism: Fitting the Loyalists in," in Ajzenstat and Smith, eds., Canada's Origins, 47-78, 109-35
136. Errington, The Lion, the Eagle, and Upper Canada
137. Patterson, "Whiggery, Nationality, and the Upper Canadian Reform Tradition," 25-44
138. McNairn, Capacity to Judge, 10-19 (quote 19)
139. Paul Romney, "Very Late Loyalist Fantasies: Nostalgic Tory History, and the Rule of Law in Upper Canada," in Canadian Perspectives on Law & Society: Issues in Legal History, ed. Barry Wright (Ottawa, ON, 1988), 119-47