Posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome, Part 2: Controversies surrounding pathophysiology of vasogenic edema

American Journal of Neuroradiology

Volumn 29, Issue 6, 2008, Pages 1043-1049

  Bartynski, Walter S ^a  

^a PRESBYTERIAN UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

MAGNESIUM;

AUTOIMMUNE DISEASE; AUTOREGULATION; BLOOD PRESSURE; BONE MARROW TRANSPLANTATION; BRAIN DISEASE; BRAIN EDEMA; BRAIN ISCHEMIA; BRAIN VASOSPASM; CELL MIGRATION; CLINICAL FEATURE; COMORBIDITY; COMPUTER ASSISTED TOMOGRAPHY; ENDOTHELIUM INJURY; HUMAN; HYPERTENSION; INFECTION; LEUKOCYTE; NEUROIMAGING; NEUROTOXICITY; PERFUSION; POSTERIOR REVERSIBLE ENCEPHALOPATHY SYNDROME; PREECLAMPSIA; REVIEW; SEPSIS; SEPTIC SHOCK; THEORY; VASCULAR DISEASE; VASOCONSTRICTION; BRAIN; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; PATHOLOGY; POSTERIOR LEUKOENCEPHALOPATHY SYNDROME; RADIOGRAPHY; SEIZURE;

BRAIN; BRAIN EDEMA; HUMANS; MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; POSTERIOR LEUKOENCEPHALOPATHY SYNDROME; SEIZURES; TOMOGRAPHY, X-RAY COMPUTED;

EID: 46749120606     PISSN: 01956108     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3174/ajnr.A0929     Document Type: Review

References (109)

1. Dinsdale HB. Hypertensive encephalopathy. Neurol Clin 1983;1:3-16
2. Schwartz RB, Bravo SM, Klufas RA, et al. Cyclosporine neurotoxicity and its relationship to hypertensive encephalopathy: CT and MR findings in 16 cases. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1995;165:627-31
3. Schwartz RB, Jones KM, Kalina P, et al. Hypertensive encephalopathy: findings on CT, MR imaging, and SPECT imaging in 14 cases. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1992;159:379-83
4. Strandgaard S, Olesen J, Skinhoj E, et al. Autoregulation of brain circulation in severe arterial hypertension. BMJ 1973;1:507-10
5. Guyton AC. Cerebral blood flow, cerebrospinal fluid and brain metabolism. In: Gutyton AC, ed. Textbook of Medical Physiology. 11th ed. Philadelphia: Elsevier Saunders; 2006:761-68
6. Zwienenberg-Lee M, Muizelaar JP. Clinical pathophysiology of traumatic brain injury. In: HR W, ed. Youmans Neurological Surgery. 5th ed. Philadelphia: Saunders; 2004:5039-64
7. Langfitt TW, Obrist WD. Occlusive cerebrovascular disease. In: Wilkins RH, Rengachary SS, eds. Neurosurgery. New York: McGraw-Hill; 1985:1167-73
8. Auer LM. The pathogenesis of hypertensive encephalopathy: experimental data and their clinical relevance with special reference to neurosurgical patients. Acta Neurochir Suppl (Wien) 1978;27:1-111
9. Kontos HA, Wei EP, Navari RM, et al. Responses of cerebral arteries and arterioles to acute hypotension and hypertension. Am J Physiol 1978;234:H371-83
10. MacKenzie ET, Strandgaard S, Graham DI, et al. Effects of acutely induced hypertension in cats on pial arteriolar caliber, local cerebral blood flow, and the blood-brain barrier. Circ Res 1976;39:33-41
11. Kalimo H, Kaste M, Haltia M. Vascular diseases. In: Graham DI, Lantos PL, eds. Greenfield's Neuropathology. 7th ed. New York: Oxford University Press; 2002:281-356
12. Kaplan NM. Management of hypertensive emergencies. Lancet 1994;344:1335-38
13. Servillo G, Bifulco F, De Robertis E, et al. Posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome in intensive care medicine. Intensive Care Med 2007;33:230-36
14. Striano P, Striano S, Tortora F, et al. Clinical spectrum and critical care management of posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome (PRES). Med Sci Monit 2005;11:CR549-53
15. Kwon S, Koo J, Lee S. Clinical spectrum of reversible posterior leukoencephalopathy syndrome. Pediatr Neurol 2001;24:361-64
16. Rail DL, Perkin GD. Computerized tomographic appearance of hypertensive encephalopathy. Arch Neurol 1980;37:310-11
17. Weingarten K, Barbut D, Filippi C, et al. Acute hypertensive encephalopathy: findings on spin-echo and gradient-echo MR imaging. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1994;162:665-70
18. Weingarten KL, Zimmerman RD, Pinto RS, et al. Computed tomographic changes of hypertensive encephalopathy. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 1985;6:395-98
19. Apollon KM, Robinson JN, Schwartz RB, et al. Cortical blindness in severe preeclampsia: computed tomography, magnetic resonance imaging, and single-photon-emission computed tomography findings. Obstet Gynecol 2000;95:1017-19
20. Bartynski WS, Boardman JF. Distinct imaging patterns and lesion distribution in posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome (PRES). AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 2007;28:1320-27
21. Bartynski WS, Zeigler Z, Spearman MP, et al. Etiology of cortical and white matter lesions in cyclosporin-A and FK-506 neurotoxicity. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 2001;22:1901-14
22. Sibai BM. Eclampsia. VI. Maternal-perinatal outcome in 254 consecutive cases. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1990;163:1049 -54, discussion 1054-55
23. Bartynski WS. Posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome, part 1: fundamental imaging and clinical features. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 2008 Mar 20 [Epub ahead of print]
24. Bartynski WS, Boardman JF. Catheter angiography, MR angiography and MR perfusion in posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 2008;29:447-55
25. Bartynski WS, Zeigler ZR, Shadduck RK, et al. Pretransplantation conditioning influence on the occurrence of cyclosporine or FK-506 neurotoxicity in allogeneic bone marrow transplantation. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 2004;25:261-69
26. Hinchey J, Chaves C, Appignani B, et al. A reversible posterior leukoencephalopathy syndrome. N Engl J Med 1996;334:494-500
27. Mukherjee P, McKinstry RC. Reversible posterior leukoencephalopathy syndrome: evaluation with diffusion-tensor MR imaging. Radiology 2001;219:756-65
28. Reece DE, Frei-Lahr DA, Shepherd JD, et al. Neurologic complications in allogeneic bone marrow transplant patients receiving cyclosporin. Bone Marrow Transplant 1991;8:393-401
29. Mark AL. Cyclosporine, sympathetic activity, and hypertension. N Engl J Med 1990;323:748-50
30. Scherrer U, Vissing SF, Morgan BJ, et al. Cyclosporine-induced sympathetic activation and hypertension after heart transplantation. N Engl J Med 1990;323:693-99
31. Brubaker LM, Smith JK, Lee YZ, et al. Hemodynamic and permeability changes in posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome measured by dynamic susceptibility perfusion-weighted MR imaging. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 2005;26:825-30
32. Engelter ST, Petrella JR, Alberts MJ, et al. Assessment of cerebral microcirculation in a patient with hypertensive encephalopathy using MR perfusion imaging. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1999;173:1491-93
33. Naidu K, Moodley J, Corr P, et al. Single photon emission and cerebral computerised tomographic scan and transcranial Doppler sonographic findings in eclampsia. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1997;104:1165-72
34. Camargo EE. Brain SPECT in neurology and psychiatry. J Nucl Med 2001;42:611-23
35. Hypertensive disorders of pregnancy. In: Cunningham FG, Gant NF, Leveno KJ, et al, eds. Williams Obstetrics. 21st ed. New York: McGraw Hill; 2001:567-618
36. Dekker GA, Sibai BM. Etiology and pathogenesis of preeclampsia: current concepts. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1998;179:1359-75
37. Bartynski WS, Boardman JF, Zeigler ZR, et al. Posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome in infection, sepsis, and shock. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 2006;27:2179-90
38. Bartynski WS, Tan HP, Boardman JF, et al. Posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome after solid organ transplantation. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 2008;29:924-30
39. Coughlin WF, McMurdo SK, Reeves T. MR imaging of postpartum cortical blindness. J Comput Assist Tomogr 1989;13:572-76
40. Trommer BL, Homer D, Mikhael MA. Cerebral vasospasm and eclampsia. Stroke 1988;19:326-29
41. Toole JF. Lacunar syndromes and hypertensive encephalopathy. In: Toole JF, ed. Cerebrovascular Disorders. 5th ed. New York: Raven; 1999:342-55
42. Shimono T, Miki Y, Toyoda H, et al. MR imaging with quantitative diffusion mapping of tacrolimus-induced neurotoxicity in organ transplant patients. Eur Radiol 2003;13:986-93
43. Maemura K, Kurihara H, Morita T, et al. Production of endothelin-1 in vascular endothelial cells is regulated by factors associated with vascular injury. Gerontology 1992;38(suppl 1):29-35
44. Mantovani A, Bussolino F, Dejana E. Cytokine regulation of endothelial cell function. FASEB J 1992;6:2591-99
45. Marsden PA, Brenner BM. Transcriptional regulation of the endothelin-1 gene by TNF-alpha. Am J Physiol 1992;262:C854-61
46. Geraghty JJ, Hoch DB, Robert ME, et al. Fatal puerperal cerebral vasospasm and stroke in a young woman. Neurology 1991;41:1145-47
47. Lewis LK, Hinshaw DB Jr, Will AD, et al. CT and angiographic correlation of severe neurological disease in toxemia of pregnancy. Neuroradiology 1988;30:59-64
48. Belfort MA, Saade GR, Grunewald C, et al. Association of cerebral perfusion pressure with headache in women with pre-eclampsia. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1999;106:814-21
49. Qureshi AI, Frankel MR, Ottenlips JR, et al. Cerebral hemodynamics in preeclampsia and eclampsia. Arch Neurol 1996;53:1226-31
50. Williams KP, Wilson S. Persistence of cerebral hemodynamic changes in patients with eclampsia: a report of three cases. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1999;181:1162-65
51. The placenta and fetal membranes. In: Cunningham FG, Gant NF, Leveno KJ, Gilstrap LC, Hauth JC, Wenstrom KD, eds. Williams Obstetrics. 21st ed. New York: McGraw Hill; 2001:85-108
52. Hill GR, Crawford JM, Cooke KR, et al. Total body irradiation and acute graft-versus-host disease: the role of gastrointestinal damage and inflammatory cytokines. Blood 1997;90:3204-13
53. Antin JH, Ferrara JL. Cytokine dysregulation and acute graft-versus-host disease. Blood 1992;80:2964-68
54. Bartynski WS, Zeigler ZR, Shadduck RK, et al. Variable incidence of cyclosporine and FK-506 neurotoxicity in hematopoeitic malignancies and marrow conditions after allogeneic bone marrow transplantation. Neurocrit Care 2005;3:33-45
55. Ferrara JL. Pathogenesis of acute graft-versus-host disease: cytokines and cellular effectors. J Hematother Stem Cell Res 2000;9:299-306
56. Holler E, Kolb HJ, Moller A, et al. Increased serum levels of tumor necrosis factor alpha precede major complications of bone marrow transplantation. Blood 1990;75:1011-16
57. Schots R, Kaufman L, Van Riet I, et al. Proinflammatory cytokines and their role in the development of major transplant-related complications in the early phase after allogeneic bone marrow transplantation. Leukemia 2003;17:1150-56
58. Zeigler ZR, Rosenfeld CS, Andrews DF 3rd, et al. Plasma von Willebrand factor antigen (vWF:AG) and thrombomodulin (TM) levels in adult thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura/hemolytic uremic syndromes (TTP/HUS) and bone marrow transplant-associated thrombotic microangiopathy (BMT-TM). Am J Hematol 1996;53:213-20
59. Ramanathan V, Helderman JH. Cyclosporine formulations. In: Sayegh M, Remuzzi G, eds. Current and Future Immunosuppressive Therapies Following Transplantation. The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic; 2001:111-21
60. Shapiro R. Tacrolimus. In: Sayegh M, Remuzzi G, eds. Current and Future Immunosuppressive Therapies Following Transplantation. The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic; 2001:123-42
61. Holler E, Kolb HJ, Hiller E, et al. Microangiopathy in patients on cyclosporine prophylaxis who developed acute graft-versus-host disease after HLA-identical bone marrow transplantation. Blood 1989;73:2018-24
62. Kon V, Sugiura M, Inagami T, et al. Role of endothelin in cyclosporine-induced glomerular dysfunction. Kidney Int 1990;37:1487-91
63. Rouquette-Gally AM, Boyeldieu D, Gluckman E, et al. Autoimmunity in 28 patients after allogeneic bone marrow transplantation: comparison with Sjogren syndrome and scleroderma. Br J Haematol 1987;66:45-47
64. Munford RS. Sepsis, severe sepsis and septic shock. In: Mandell GL, Bennett JE, Dolin R, eds. Principles and Practice of Infectious Disease. Philadelphia: Elsevier; 2005:906-26
65. Varon J, Marik PE. Multiple organ dysfunction syndrome. In: Irwin RS, Rippe JM, eds. Irwin and Rippe's Intensive Care Medicine. 5th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott-Williams & Wilkins; 2003:1834-38
66. Vincent JL, Moreno R, Takala J, et al. The SOFA (Sepsis-related Organ Failure Assessment) score to describe organ dysfunction/failure: on behalf of the Working Group on Sepsis-Related Problems of the European Society of Intensive Care Medicine. Intensive Care Med 1996;22:707-10
67. Gabay C, Kushner I. Acute-phase proteins and other systemic responses to inflammation. N Engl J Med 1999;340:448-54
68. McGuire TR, Bociek GR, Pavletic SZ, et al. Organ dysfunction following stem cell transplantation: relationship to plasma cytokine concentrations. Bone Marrow Transplant 2001;28:889-93
69. Aird WC. The role of the endothelium in severe sepsis and multiple organ dysfunction syndrome. Blood 2003;101:3765-77
70. Mutunga M, Fulton B, Bullock R, et al. Circulating endothelial cells in patients with septic shock. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2001;163:195-200
71. Parent C, Eichacker PQ. Neutrophil and endothelial cell interactions in sepsis: the role of adhesion molecules. Infect Dis Clin North Am 1999;13:427-47, x
72. McCuskey RS, Urbaschek R, Urbaschek B. The microcirculation during endotoxemia. Cardiovasc Res 1996;32:752-63
73. Symeonides S, Balk RA. Nitric oxide in the pathogenesis of sepsis. Infect Dis Clin North Am 1999;13:449-63, x
74. Sands KE, Bates DW, Lanken PN, et al. Epidemiology of sepsis syndrome in 8 academic medical centers. JAMA 1997;278:234-40
75. Wanecek M, Weitzberg E, Rudehill A, et al. The endothelin system in septic and endotoxin shock. Eur J Pharmacol 2000;407:1-15
76. Sugiura M, Inagami T, Kon V. Endotoxin stimulates endothelin-release in vivo and in vitro as determined by radioimmunoassay. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1989;161:1220-27
77. Bannan J, Visvanathan K, Zabriskie JB. Structure and function of streptococcal and staphylococcal superantigens in septic shock. Infect Dis Clin North Am 1999;13:387-96, ix
78. Kotb M. Bacterial pyrogenic exotoxins as superantigens. Clin Microbiol Rev 1995;8:411-26
79. Sriskandan S, Cohen J. Gram-positive sepsis: mechanisms and differences from gram-negative sepsis. Infect Dis Clin North Am 1999;13:397-412
80. Halloran PF, Batiuk TD, Goes N, et al. Immunologic concepts. In: Stuart FP, Abecassis MM, DB K, eds. Organ Transplantation. 2nd ed. Georgetown, Tex: Landes Bioscience; 2003:1-44
81. Cerilli J, Brasile L, Galouzis T, et al. The vascular endothelial cell antigen system. Transplantation 1985;39:286-89
82. Immunity to tumors. In: Abbas AK, Lichtman AH, eds. Cellular and Molecular Immunology 5th ed. Philadelphia: Elsevier Saunders; 2005;391-410
83. Starzl TE, Demetris AJ, Trucco M, et al. Cell migration, chimerism, and graft acceptance, with particular reference to the liver. In: Busuttil RW, Klintmalm G, eds. Transplantation of the Liver. Philadelphia: WB Saunders; 1996:274-87
84. Bianchi DW, Zickwolf GK, Weil GJ, et al. Male fetal progenitor cells persist in maternal blood for as long as 27 years postpartum. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1996;93:705-08
85. Thomas MR, Williamson R, Craft I, et al. Y chromosome sequence DNA amplified from peripheral blood of women in early pregnancy. Lancet 1994;343:413-14
86. Holzgreve W, Ghezzi F, Di Naro E, et al. Disturbed feto-maternal cell traffic in preeclampsia. Obstet Gynecol 1998;91:669-72
87. Smith A. Systemic sclerosis: etiology and pathogenesis. In: Hochbert MC, Silman AJ, Smolen JS, et al, eds. Rheumatology. 3rd ed. Edinburgh, UK: Mosby; 2003:1481-92
88. Artlett CM, Smith JB, Jimenez SA. Identification of fetal DNA and cells in skin lesions from women with systemic sclerosis. N Engl J Med 1998;338:1186-91
89. Nelson JL, Furst DE, Maloney S, et al. Microchimerism and HLA-compatible relationships of pregnancy in scleroderma. Lancet 1998;351:559-62
90. Furst DE, Clements PJ, Graze P, et al. A syndrome resembling progressive systemic sclerosis after bone marrow transplantation: a model for scleroderma? Arthritis Rheum 1979;22:904-10
91. McCormick LL, Zhang Y, Tootell E, et al. Anti-TGF-beta treatment prevents skin and lung fibrosis in murine sclerodermatous graft-versus-host disease: a model for human scleroderma. J Immunol 1999;163:5693-99
92. Crow MK. Cellular immunity: systemic lupus erythematosus. In: Hochbert MC, Silman AJ, Smolen JS, Weinblatt ME, Weisman MH, eds. Rheumatology. 3rd ed. Edinburgh, UK: Mosby; 2003:1347-58
93. Stone JH, Hoffman GS. Wegener's granulomatosis and lymphomatoid granulomatosis. In: Hochbert MC, Silman AJ, Smolen JS, et al, eds. Rheumatology. 3rd ed. Edinburgh, UK: Mosby; 2003:1624-34
94. Ito T, Sakai T, Inagawa S, et al. MR angiography of cerebral vasospasm in preeclampsia. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 1995;16:1344-46
95. Lin JT, Wang SJ, Fuh JL, et al. Prolonged reversible vasospasm in cyclosporin A-induced encephalopathy. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 2003;24:102-04
96. Shbarou RM, Chao NJ, Morgenlander JC. Cyclosporin A-related cerebral vasculopathy. Bone Marrow Transplant 2000;26:801-04
97. Bartynski WS, Grabb BC, Zeigler Z, et al. Watershed imaging features and clinical vascular injury in cyclosporin A neurotoxicity. J Comput Assist Tomogr 1997;21:872-80
98. Kevil CG, Payne DK, Mire E, et al. Vascular permeability factor/vascular endothelial cell growth factor-mediated permeability occurs through disorganization of endothelial junctional proteins. J Biol Chem 1998;273:15099-103
99. Levy AP, Levy NS, Wegner S, et al. Transcriptional regulation of the rat vascular endothelial growth factor gene by hypoxia. J Biol Chem 1995;270:13333-40
100. Shweiki D, Itin A, Soffer D, et al. Vascular endothelial growth factor induced by hypoxia may mediate hypoxia-initiated angiogenesis. Nature 1992;359:843-45
101. Chavez JC, Agani F, Pichiule P, et al. Expression of hypoxia-inducible factor-1 alpha in the brain of rats during chronic hypoxia. J Appl Physiol 2000;89:1937-42
102. Schoch HJ, Fischer S, Marti HH. Hypoxia-induced vascular endothelial growth factor expression causes vascular leakage in the brain. Brain 2002;125:2549-57
103. Sengar AR, Gupta RK, Dhanuka AK, et al. MR imaging, MR angiography, and MR spectroscopy of the brain in eclampsia. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 1997;18:1485-90
104. Xu L, Fukumura D, Jain RK. Acidic extracellular pH induces vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) in human glioblastoma cells via ERK1/2MAPK signaling pathway: mechanism of low pH-induced VEGF. J Biol Chem 2002;277:11368-74. Epub 2001 Dec 11
105. Weinberger MH. Hypertensive encephalopathy. In: Noseworthy JH, ed. Neurological Therapeutics: Principles and Practice. 2nd ed. Milton Park, Abington, Oxon, UK: Informa Healthcare; 2006:670-73
106. Thompson CB, June CH, Sullivan KM, et al. Association between cyclosporin neurotoxicity and hypomagnesaemia. Lancet 1984;2:1116-20
107. van den Bergh WM, Algra A, van Kooten F, et al. Magnesium sulfate in aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage: a randomized controlled trial. Stroke 2005;36:1011-15
108. Belfort MA, Moise KJ Jr. Effect of magnesium sulfate on maternal brain blood flow in preeclampsia: a randomized, placebo-controlled study. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1992;167:661-66
109. Ram Z, Sadeh M, Shacked I, et al. Magnesium sulfate reverses experimental delayed cerebral vasospasm after subarachnoid hemorrhage in rats. Stroke 1991;22:922-27