Interannual variability of evapotranspiration and energy exchange over an annual grassland in California

Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres

Volumn 113, Issue 9, 2008, Pages

  Ryu, Youngryel ^a   Baldocchi, Dennis D ^a   Ma, Siyan ^a   Hehn, Ted ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CLIMATE CHANGE; EVAPOTRANSPIRATION; PRECIPITATION (METEOROLOGY); SOIL MOISTURE; SOLAR RADIATION;

ANNUAL VARIATION; CLIMATE VARIATION; EDDY COVARIANCE; ENERGY FLUX; EVAPOTRANSPIRATION; GRASSLAND; MEDITERRANEAN ENVIRONMENT; PRECIPITATION (CLIMATOLOGY); SEASONAL VARIATION; SOIL MOISTURE; SOLAR RADIATION;

CALIFORNIA; NORTH AMERICA; UNITED STATES;

EID: 46449130871     PISSN: 01480227     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1029/2007JD009263     Document Type: Article

References (134)

1. Aanderud, Z. T., C. S. Bledsoe, and J. H. Richards (2003), Contribution of relative growth rate to root foraging by annual and perennial grasses from California oak woodlands, Oecologia, 136(3), 424-430.
2. Amiro, B. D., et al. (2006), Carbon, energy and water fluxes at mature and disturbed forest sites, Saskatchewan, Canada, Agric. For Meteorol., 136(3-4), 237-251.
3. Angert, A., S. Biraud, C. Bonfils, C. C. Henning, W. Buermann, J. Pinzon, C. J. Tucker, and I. Fung (2005), Drier summers cancel out the CO2 uptake enhancement induced by warmer springs, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.SA., 102(31), 10,823-10,827.
4. Arain, M. A., T. A. Black, A. G. Barr, P. G. Jarvis, J. M. Massheder, D. L. Verseghy, and Z. Nesic (2002), Effects of seasonal and interannual climate variability on net ecosystem productivity of boreal deciduous and conifer forests, Can. J. For. Res., 32(5), 878-891.
5. Arain, M. A., T. A. Black, A. G. Barr, T. J. Griffis, K. Morgenstern, and Z. Nesic (2003), Year-round observations of the energy and water vapour fluxes above a boreal black spruce forest, Hydrol. Processes, 17(18), 3581-3600.
6. Aurela, M., J. P. Tuovinen, and T. Laurila (2001), Net CO2 exchange of a subarctic mountain birch ecosystem, Theor. Appl. Climatol., 70(1-4), 135-148.
7. Baldocchi, D., and T. Meyers (1998), On using eco-physiological, micro-meteorological and biogeochemical theory to evaluate carbon dioxide, water vapor and trace gas fluxes over vegetation: A perspective, Agric. For. Meteorol., 90(1-2), 1-25.
8. Baldocchi, D. D., and L. K. Xu (2007), What limits evaporation from Mediterranean oak woodlands-The supply of moisture in the soil, physiological control by plants or the demand by the atmosphere, Adv. Water Resour., 30, 2113-2122.
9. Baldocchi, D. D., C. A. Vogel, and B. Hall (1997), Seasonal variation of energy and water vapor exchange rates above and below a boreal jack pine forest canopy, J. Geophys. Res., 102(D24), 28,939-28,951.
10. Baldocchi, D., et al. (2001a), FLUXNET: A new tool to study the temporal and spatial variability of ecosystem-scale carbon dioxide, water vapor, and energy flux densities, Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 82(11), 2415-2434.
11. Baldocchi, D., E. Falge, and K. Wilson (2001b), A spectral analysis of biosphere-atmosphere trace gas flux densities and meteorological variables across hour to multi-year time scales, Agric. For. Meteorol., 107(1), 1-27.
12. Baldocchi, D. D., L. K. Xu, and N. Kiang (2004), How plant functional-type, weather, seasonal drought, and soil physical properties alter water and energy fluxes of an oak-grass savanna and an annual grassland, Agric. For. Meteorol., 123(1-2), 13-39.
13. Barford, C. C., S. C. Wofsy, M. L. Goulden, J. W. Munger, E. H. Pyle, S. P. Urbanski, L. Hutyra, S. R. Saleska, D. Fitzjarrald, and K. Moore (2001), Factors controlling long- and short-term sequestration of atmospheric CO2 in a mid-latitude forest, Science, 294(5547), 1688-1691.
14. Barr, A. G., T. A. Black, E. H. Hogg, T. J. Griffis, K. Morgenstern, N. Kljun, A. Theede, and Z. Nesic (2007), Climatic controls on the carbon and water balances of a boreal aspen forest, 1994-2003, Global Change Biol., 13(3), 561-576.
15. Beringer, J., L. B. Hutley, N. J. Tapper, and L. A. Cernusak (2007), Savanna fires and their impact on net ecosystem productivity in North Australia, Global Change Biol., 13(5), 990-1004.
16. Biswell, H. H. (1956), Ecology of California grasslands, J. Range Manage., 9(1), 19-24.
17. Bonan, G. B., S. Levis, L. Kergoat, and K. W. Oleson (2002), Landscapes as patches of plant functional types: An integrating concept for climate and ecosystem models, Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 16(2), 1021, doi:10.1029/2000GB001360.
18. Bosch, J. M., and J. D. Hewlett (1982), A review of catchment experiments to determine the effect of vegetation changes on water yield and evapotranspiration, J. Hydrol., 55(1-4), 3-23.
19. Bremer, D. J., L. M. Auen, J. M. Ham, and C. E. Owensby (2001), Evapotranspiration in a prairie ecosystem: Effects of grazing by cattle, Agron. J., 93(2), 338-348.
20. Brubaker, K. L., and D. Entekhabi (1996), Analysis of feedback mechanisms in land-atmosphere interaction, Water Resour. Res., 32(5), 1343-1357.
21. Brutsaert, W. (2006), Cations of increasing land surface evaporation during the second half of the 20th century, Geophys. Res. Lett., 33(20), L20403, doi:10.1029/2006GL027532.
22. Brutsaert, W., and M. B. Parlange (1998), Hydrologic cycle explains the evaporation paradox, Nature, 396(6706), 30.
23. Budyko, M. I. (1974), Climate and Life, Academic Press, New York, NY.
24. Burba, G. G., and S. B. Verma (2001), Prairie growth, PAR albedo and seasonal distribution of energy fluxes, Agric. For. Meteorol., 107(3), 227-240.
25. Burba, G. G., and S. B. Verma (2005), Seasonal and interannual variability in evapotranspiration of native tallgrass prairie and cultivated wheat ecosystems, Agric. For. Meteorol., 135(1-4), 190-201.
26. Carrara, A., A. S. Kowalski, J. Neirynck, I. A. Janssens, J. C. Yuste, and R. Ceulemans (2003), Net ecosystem CO2 exchange of mixed forest in Belgium over 5 years, Agric. For. Meteorol., 119(3-4), 209-227.
27. Churkina, G., D. Schimel, B. H. Braswell, and X. M. Xiao (2005), Spatial analysis of growing season length control over net ecosystem exchange, Global Change Biol., 11(10), 1777-1787.
28. Cramer, W., et al. (2001), Global response of terrestrial ecosystem structure and function to CO2 and climate change: Results from six dynamic global vegetation models, Global Change Biol., 7(4), 357-373.
29. da Rocha, H. R., M. L. Goulden, S. D. Miller, M. C. Menton, L. Pinto, H. C. de Freitas, and A. Figueira (2004), Seasonality of water and heat fluxes over a tropical forest in eastern Amazonia, Ecol. Appl., 14(4), S22-S32.
30. Dai, A., I. Y. Fung, and A. D. DelGenio (1997), Surface observed global land precipitation variations during 1900-88, J. Clim., 10(11), 2943-2962.
31. deBruin, H. A. R. (1983), A model for the Priestley-Taylor parameter-alpha, J. Clim. Appl. Meteorol., 22(4), 572-578.
32. Dolman, A. J., T. C. Maximov, E. J. Moors, A. P. Maximov, J. A. Elbers, A. V. Kononov, M. J. Waterloo, and M. K. van der Molen (2004), Net ecosystem exchange of carbon dioxide and water of far eastern Siberian Larch (Larix cajanderii) on permafrost, Biogeosciences, 1(2), 133-146.
33. Donohue, R. J., M. L. Roderick, and T. R. McVicar (2007), On the importance of including vegetation dynamics in Budyko's hydrological model, Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 11(2), 983-995.
34. Dunn, A. L., C. C. Barford, S. C. Wofsy, M. L. Goulden, and B. C. Daube (2007), A long-term record of carbon exchange in a boreal black spruce forest: Means, responses to interannual variability, and decadal trends, Global Change Biol., 13(3), 577-590.
35. Eagleman, J. R. (1976), The Visualization of Climate, Lexington Books, Lexington, Mass.
36. Efron, B., and R. J. Tibshirani (1993), An Introduction to the Bootstrap, Chapman & Hall, New York.
37. Falge, E., et al. (2001), Gap filling strategies for long term energy flux data sets, Agric. For. Meteorol., 107(1), 71-77.
38. Farquhar, G. D., and M. L. Roderick (2007), Worldwide changes in evaporative demand, Proceedings of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences, in press.
39. Garratt, J. R., and B. B. Hicks (1973), Momentum, heat and water-vapor transfer to and from natural and artificial surfaces, Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc., 99(422), 680-687.
40. Gedney, N., P. M. Cox, R. A. Betts, O. Boucher, C. Huntingford, and P. A. Stott (2006), Detection of a direct carbon dioxide effect in continental river runoff records, Nature, 439(7078), 835-838.
41. Gilmanov, T. G., T. J. Svejcar, D. A. Johnson, R. E. Angell, N. Z. Saliendra, and B. K. Wylie (2006), Long-term dynamics of production, respiration, and net CO2 exchange in two sagebrush-steppe ecosystems, Rangeland Ecol. Manage., 59(6), 585-599.
42. Golubev, V. S., J. H. Lawrimore, P. Y. Groisman, N. A. Speranskaya, S. A. Zhuravin, M. J. Menne, T. C. Peterson, and R. W. Malone (2001), Evaporation changes over the contiguous United States and the former USSR: A reassessment, Geophys. Res. Lett., 28(13), 2665-2668.
43. Grace, J., J. Lloyd, A. C. Miranda, H. Miranda, and J. H. C. Gash (1998), Fluxes of carbon dioxide and water vapour over a C-4 pasture in south-western Amazonia (Brazil), Aust. J. Plant Physiol., 25(5), 519-530.
44. Groisman, P. Y., R. W. Knight, T. R. Karl, D. R. Easterling, B. M. Sun, and J. H. Lawrimore (2004), Contemporary changes of the hydrological cycle over the contiguous United States: Trends derived from in situ observations, J. Hydrometeorol., 5(1), 64-85.
45. Grunwald, T., and C. Bernhofer (2007), A decade of carbon, water and energy flux measurements of an old spruce forest at the Anchor Station Tharandt, Tellus, Ser. B, 59(3), 387-396.
46. Grunzweig, J. M., T. Lin, E. Rotenberg, A. Schwartz, and D. Yakir (2003), Carbon sequestration in arid-land forest, Global Change Biol., 9(5), 791-799.
47. Hagen, S. C., B. H. Braswell, E. Linder, S. Frolking, A. D. Richardson, and D. Y. Hollinger (2006), Statistical uncertainty of eddy flux-based estimates of gross ecosystem carbon exchange at Howland Forest, Maine, J. Geophys. Res., 111, D08503, doi:10.1029/2005JD006154.
48. Ham, J. M., and A. K. Knapp (1998), Fluxes of CO2 water vapor, and energy from a prairie ecosystem during the seasonal transition from carbon sink to carbon source, Agric. For. Meteorol., 89(1), 1-14.
49. Hanson, P. J., et al. (2004), Oak forest carbon and water simulations: Model intercomparisons and evaluations against independent data, Ecol. Monogr., 74(3), 443-489.
50. Haszpra, L., Z. Barcza, K. J. Davis, and K. Tarczay (2005), Long-term tall tower carbon dioxide flux monitoring over an area of mixed vegetation, Agric. For. Meteorol, 132(1-2), 58-77.
51. Heusinkveld, B. G., A. F. G. Jacobs, A. A. M. Holtslag, and S. M. Berkowicz (2004), Surface energy balance closure in an arid region: Role of soil heat flux, Agric. For. Meteorol., 122(1-2), 21-37.
52. Holdridge, L. R. (1947), Determination of world plant formations from simple climatic data, Science, 105(2727), 367-368.
53. Hollinger, D. Y., et al. (2004), Spatial and temporal variability in forest-atmosphere CO2 exchange, Global Change Biol., 10(10), 1689-1706.
54. Houghton, J. T., Y. Ding, D. C. Griggs, M. Noguer, P. J. van der Linden, X. Dai, K. Maskell, and C. A. Johnson (2001), Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, U-K.
55. Hulme, M., T. J. Osborn, and T. C. Johns (1998), Precipitation sensitivity to global warming: Comparison of observations with HadCM2 simulations, Geophys. Res. Lett., 25(17), 3379-3382.
56. Humphreys, E. R., T. A. Black, G. J. Ethier, G. B. Drewitt, D. L. Spittlehouse, E. M. Jork, Z. Nesic, and N. J. Livingston (2003), Annual and seasonal variability of sensible and latent heat fluxes above a coastal Douglas-fir forest, British Columbia, Canada, Agric. For. Meteorol., 115(1-2), 109-125.
57. Hunt, J. E., F. M. Kelliher, T. M. McSeveny, and J. N. Byers (2002), Evaporation and carbon dioxide exchange between the atmosphere and a tussock grassland during a summer drought, Agric. For Meteorol., 111(1), 65-82.
58. Huntington, T. G. (2006), Evidence for intensification of the global water cycle: Review and synthesis, J. Hydrol., 319(1-4), 83-95.
59. Hutyra, L., J. W. Munger, S. R. Saleska, E. Gottlieb, B. C. Daube, A. L. Dunn, D. F. Amaral, P. B. de Camargo, and S. C. Wofsy (2007), Seasonal controls on the exchange of carbon and water in an Amazonian rain forest, J. Geophys. Res., 112, G03008, doi:10.1029/2006JG000365.
60. Jacobs, A. F. G., B. G. Heusinkveld, and A. A. M. Holtslag (2007), Seasonal and interannual variability of carbon dioxide and water balances of a grassland, Clim. Change, 82(1-2), 163-177.
61. Jaeger, L., and A. Kessler (1997), Twenty years of heat and water balance climatology ar the Hartheim pine forest, Germany, Agric. For. Meteorol., 84(1-2), 25-36.
62. Jarvis, P. G., and K. G. McNaughton (1986), Stomal control of transpiration: scaling up from leaf to region, Adv. Ecol. Res., 15, 1-49.
63. Joffre, R., and S. Rambal (1993), How tree cover influences the water-balance of Mediterranean Rangelands, Ecology, 74(2), 570-582.
64. Jones, P. D., and A. Moberg (2003), Hemispherie and large-scale surface air temperature variations: An extensive revision and an update to 2001, J. Clim., 16(2), 206-223.
65. Keeling, C. D., J. F. S. Chin, and T. P. Whorf (1996), Increased activity of northern vegetation inferred from atmospheric CO2 measurements, Nature, 382(6587), 146-149.
66. Kelliher, F. M., R. Leuning, M. R. Raupach, and E.-D. Schulze (1995), Maximum conductances for evaporation from global vegetation types, Agric. For. Meteorol., 73, 1-16.
67. Kim, J., and S. B. Verma (1990), Components of surface-energy balance in a temperate grassland ecosystem, Boundary Layer Meteorol., 51(4), 401-417.
68. Kim, J., Q. Guo, D. D. Baldocchi, M. Leclerc, L. Xu, and H. P. Schmid (2006), Upscaling fluxes from tower to landscape: Overlaying flux foot-prints on high-resolution (IKONOS) images of vegetation cover, Agric. For. Meteorol., 136(3-4), 132-146.
69. Kljun, N., T. A. Black, T. J. Griffis, A. G. Barr, D. Gaumont-Guay, K. Morgenstern, J. H. McCaughey, and Z. Nesic (2006), Response of net ecosystem productivity of three boreal forest stands to drought, Ecosystems, 9(7), 1128-1144.
70. Knapp, A. K., and M. D. Smith (2001), Variation among biomes in temporal dynamics of aboveground primary production, Science, 291(5503), 481-484.
71. Knapp, A. K., P. A. Fay, J. M. Blair, S. L. Collins, M. D. Smith, J. D. Carlisle, C. W. Harper, B. T. Danner, M. S. Lett, and J. K. McCarron (2002), Rainfall variability, carbon cycling, and plant species diversity in a mesic grassland, Science, 298(5601), 2202-2205.
72. Kosugi, Y., S. Takanashi, H. Tanaka, S. Ohkubo, M. Tani, M. Yano, and T. Katayama (2007), Evapotranspiration over a Japanese cypress forest. I. Eddy covariance fluxes and surface conductance characteristics for 3 years, J. Hydrol., 337(3-4), 269-283.
73. Kowalski, S., M. Sartore, R. Burlett, P. Berbigier, and D. Loustau (2003), The annual carbon budget of a French pine forest (Pinus pinaster) following harvest, Global Change Biol., 9(7), 1051-1065.
74. Labat, D., Y. Godderis, J. L. Probst, and J. L. Guyot (2004), Evidence for global runoff increase related to climate warming, Adv. Water Resour, 27(6), 631-642.
75. Lafleur, P. M., R. A. Hember, S. W. Admiral, and N. T. Roulet (2005), Annual and seasonal variability in evapotranspiration and water table at a shrub-covered bog in southern Ontario, Canada, Hydrol. Processes, 19(18), 3533-3550.
76. Lee, X. H., J. D. Fuentes, R. M. Staebler, and H. H. Neumann (1999), Long-term observation of the atmospheric exchange of CO2 with a temperate deciduous forest in southern Ontario, Canada, J. Geophys. Res., 104(D13), 15,975-15,984.
77. Lettenmaier, D. P., and J. S. Famiglietti (2006), Water from on high, Nature, 444(7119), 562-563.
78. Lewis, D., M. J. Singer, R. A. Dahlgren, and K. W. Tate (2000), Hydrology in a California oak woodland watershed: A 17-year study, J. Hydrol., 240(1-2), 106-117.
79. Li, S. G., C. T. Lai, G. Lee, S. Shimoda, T. Yokoyama, A. Higuchi, and T. Oikawa (2005), Evapotranspiration from a wet temperate grassland and its sensitivity to microenvironmental variables, Hydrol. Processes, 19(2), 517-532.
80. Liepert, B. G., J. Feichter, U. Lohmann, and E. Roeckner (2004), Can aerosols spin down the water cycle in a warmer and moister world?, Geophys. Res. Lett., 31(6), L06207, doi:10.1029/2003GL019060.
81. Liu, B. H., M. Xu, M. Henderson, and W. G. Gong (2004), A spatial analysis of pan evaporation trends in China, 1955-2000, J. Geophys. Res., 109(D15), D15102, doi:10.1029/2004JD004511.
82. Luo, H. Y., W. C. Oechel, S. J. Hastings, R. Zulueta, Y. H. Qian, and H. Kwon (2007), Mature semiarid chaparral ecosystems can be a significant sink for atmospheric carbon dioxide, Global Change Biol., 13(2), 386-396.
83. Ma, S., D. D. Baldocchi, L. Xu, and T. Hehn (2007), Inter-annual variability in carbon dioxide exchange of an oak/grass savanna and open grassland in California, Agric. For. Meteorol., 147(3-4), 157-171.
84. Malhi, Y., E. Pegoraro, A. D. Nobre, M. G. P. Pereira, J. Grace, A. D. Culf, and R. Clement (2002), Energy and water dynamics of a central Amazonian rain forest, J. Geophys. Res., 107(D20), 8061, doi:10.1029/2001JD000623.
85. Marc, V., and M. Robinson (2007), The long-term water balance (1972-2004) of upland forestry and grassland at Plynlimon, mid-Wales, Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 11(1), 44-60.
86. McNaughton, K. G., and T. W. Spriggs (1986), A mixed-layer model for regional evaporation, Boundary Layer Meteorol., 34, 243-262.
87. McNaughton, K. G., and T. W. Spriggs (1989), An evaluation of the Priestley and Taylor equation and the complementary relationship using results from a mixed-layer model of the convective boundary layer, paper presented at Estimation of Areal Evapotranspiration, IAHS Publication Vancouver, Canada.
88. Meyers, T. P. (2001), A comparison of summertime water and CO2 fluxes over rangeland for well watered and drought conditions, Agric. For. Meteorol., 106(3), 205-214.
89. Meyers, T. P., and S. E. Hollinger (2004), An assessment of storage terms in the surface energy balance of maize and soybean, Agric. For. Meteorol., 125(1-2), 105-115.
90. Monson, R. K., J. P. Sparks, T. N. Rosenstiel, L. E. Scott-Denton, T. E. Huxman, P. C. Harley, A. A. Turnipseed, S. P. Burns, B. Backlund, and J. Hu (2005), Climatic influences on net ecosystem CO2 exchange during the transition from wintertime carbon source to springtime carbon sink in a high-elevation, subalpine forest, Oecologia, 146(1), 130-147.
91. Monteith, J. L. (1965), Evaporation and the environment, Symposium of the Society of Exploratory Biology, 19, 205-234.
92. Monteith, J. L., and M. H. Unsworth (1990), Principles of Environmental Physics, 2nd ed., Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd, London.
93. Moore, K. E., D. R. Fitzjarrald, R. K. Sakai, M. L. Goulden, J. W. Munger, and S. C. Wofsy (1996), Seasonal variation in radiative and turbulent exchange at a deciduous forest in central Massachusetts, J. Appl. Meteorol., 35(1), 122-134.
94. Morton, F. I. (1978), Estimating evapotranspiration from potential evaporation: Practicality of an iconoclastic approach, J. Hydrol., 38, 1-32.
95. Novick, K. A., P. C. Stoy, G. G. Katul, D. S. Ellsworth, M. B. S. Siqueira, J. Juang, and R. Oren (2004), Carbon dioxide and water vapor exchange in a warm temperate grassland, Oecologia, 138(2), 259-274.
96. Ohmura, A., and H. Gilgen (1993), Re-Evaluation of the Global Energy Balance, pp. 93-110, IUGG and AGU, Washington, D.C.
97. Ohmura, A., and M. Wild (2002), Is the hydrological cycle accelerating?, Science, 298(5597), 1345-1346.
98. Oliphant, A. J., C. S. B. Grimmond, H. N. Zutter, H. P. Schmid, H. B. Su, S. L. Scott, B. Offerle, J. C. Randolph, and J. Ehman (2004), Heat storage and energy balance fluxes for a temperate deciduous forest, Agric. For. Meteorol., 126(3-4), 185-201.
99. Owen, K. E., et al. (2007), Linking flux network measurements to continental scale simulations: Ecosystem carbon dioxide exchange capacity under non-water-stressed conditions, Global Change Biol., 13(4), 734-760.
100. Parton, W. J., D. S. Ojima, and D. S. Schimel (1994), Environmental-change in grasslands - Assessment using models, Clim. Change, 28(1-2), 111-141.
101. Peterson, T. C., V. S. Golubev, and P. Y. Groisman (1995), Evaporation losing its strength, Nature, 377(6551), 687-688.
102. Pitt, M. D., and H. F. Heady (1978), Responses of annual vegetation to temperature and rainfall patterns in northern California, Ecology, 59(2), 336-350.
103. Priestley, C. H. B., and R. J. Taylor (1972), On the assessment of surface heat flux and evaporation using large-scale parameters, Mon. Weather Rev., 100(2), 81-92.
104. Ramanathan, V., P. J. Crutzen, J. T. Kiehl, and D. Rosenfeld (2001), Aerosols, climate, and the hydrological cycle, Science, 294(5549), 2119-2124.
105. Raupach, M. R. (1995), Vegetation-atmosphere interaction and surface conductance at leaf, canopy and regional scales, Agric. For. Meteorol., 73, 151-179.
106. Raupach, M. R. (1998), Influences of local feedbacks on land-air exchanges of energy and carbon, Global Change Biol., 4(5), 477-494.
107. Restrepo, N. C., and M. A. Arain (2005), Energy and water exchanges from a temperate pine plantation forest, Hydrol. Processes, 19(1), 27-49.
108. Roderick, M. L., and G. D. Farquhar (2002a), The cause of decreased pan evaporation over the past 50 years, Science, 298(5597), 1410-1411.
109. Roderick, M. L., and G. D. Farquhar (2002b), The cause of decreased pan evaporation over the past 50 years, Science, 298, 1410-1411.
110. Roulet, N. T., P. M. Lafleur, P. J. H. Richard, T. R. Moore, E. R. Humphreys, and J. Bubier (2007), Contemporary carbon balance and late Holocene carbon accumulation in a northern peatland, Global Change Biol., 13(2), 397-411.
111. Rouse, W. R., C. M. Oswald, J. Binyamin, P. D. Blanken, W. M. Schertzer, and C. Spence (2003), Interannual and seasonal variability of the surface energy balance and temperature of central Great Slave Lake, J. Hydrometeorol., 4(4), 720-730.
112. Saigusa, N., T. Oikawa, and S. Liu (1998), Seasonal variations of the exchange of CO2 and 420 between a grassland and the atmosphere: An experimental study, Agric. For Meteorol., 89(2), 131-139.
113. Song, J. (1999), Phenological influences on the albedo of prairie grassland and crop fields, Int. J. Biometeorol, 42(3), 153-157.
114. Stephenson, N. L. (1990), Climatic control of vegetation distribution - The role of the water-balance, Am. Nat., 135(5), 649-670.
115. Stewart, J. B., and S. B. Verma (1992), Comparison of surface fluxes and conductances at 2 contrasting sites within the FIFE area, J. Geophys. Res., 97(D17), 18,623-18,628.
116. Suyker, A. E., and S. B. Verma (2007), Interannual water vapor and energy exchange in an irrigated maize-based agroecosystem, Agric. For. Meteorol., 148, 417-427.
117. Thom, A. S. (1972), Momentum, mass and heat exchange of vegetation, Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc., 98, 124-134.
118. Thornthwaite, C. W. (1948), An approach toward a rational classification of climate, Geogr. Rev., 38(1), 55-94.
119. Valentini, R., J. A. Gamon, and C. B. Field (1995), Ecosystem gas-exchange in a California Grassland - Seasonal patterns and implications for scaling, Ecology, 76(6), 1940-1952.
120. Verma, S. (1989), Aerodynamic resistances to transfers of heat, mass and momentum, paper presented at Estimation of Areal Evapotranspiration, IAHS Publication Vancouver, Canada.
121. Verma, S. B., J. Kim, and R. J. Clement (1989), Carbon-dioxide, watervapor and sensible heat fluxes over a tallgrass prairie, Boundary Layer Meteorol., 46(1-2), 53-67.
122. Verma, S. B., J. Kim, and R. J. Clement (1992), Momentum, water-vapor, and carbon-dioxide exchange at a centrally located Prairie site During FIFE, J. Geophys. Res., 97(D17), 18,629-18,639.
123. Vourlitis, G. L., N. Priante, M. M. S. Hayashi, J. D. Nogueira, F. T. Caseiro, and J. H. Campelo (2002), Seasonal variations in the evapotranspiration of a transitional tropical forest of Mato Grosso, Brazil, Water Resour. Res., 38(6), 1094, doi:10.1029/2000WR000122.
124. Wang, A., D. T. Price, and V. Arora (2006a), Estimating changes in global vegetation cover (1850-2100) for use in climate models, Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 20, GB3028, doi:10.1029/2005GB002514.
125. Wang, W. L., B. T. Anderson, N. Phillips, R. K. Kaufmann, C. Potter, and R. B. Myneni (2006b), Feedbacks of vegetation on summertime climate variability over the North American grasslands. Part I: Statistical analysis, Earth Interactions, 10(1), 27.
126. Wetherald, R. T., and S. Manabe (2002), Simulation of hydrologie changes associated with global warming, J. Geophys. Res., 107(D19), 4379, doi:10.1029/2001JD001195.
127. Wever, L. A., L. B. Flanagan, and P. J. Carlson (2002), Seasonal and interannual variation in evapotranspiration, energy balance and surface conductance in a northern temperate grassland, Agric. For. Meteorol., 112(1), 31-49.
128. Wild, M., A. Ohmura, H. Gilgen, and D. Rosenfeld (2004), On the consistency of trends in radiation and temperature records and implications for the global hydrological cycle, Geophys. Res. Lett., 31(11), L11201, doi:10.1029/2003GL019188.
129. Wilson, K. B., and D. D. Baldocchi (2000), Seasonal and interannual variability of energy fluxes over a broadleaved temperate deciduous forest in North America, Agric. For. Meteorol., 100(1), 1-18.
130. Wilson, K. B., and D. D. Baldocchi (2001), Comparing independent estimates of carbon dioxide exchange over 5 years at a deciduous forest in the southeastern United States, J. Geophys. Res., 106(D24), 34,167-34,178.
131. Wilson, K., et al. (2002), Energy balance closure at FLUXNET sites, Agric. For. Meteorol., 113(1-4), 223-243.
132. Woodward, F. I., and M. R. Lomas (2004), Vegetation dynamics - Simulating responses to climatic change, Biol. Rev., 79(3), 643-670.
133. Xu, L., and D. D. Baldocchi (2004), Seasonal variation in carbon dioxide exchange over a Mediterranean annual grassland in California, Agric. For. Meteorol., 123(1-2), 79-96.
134. Yang, D. W., F. B. Sun, Z. T. Liu, Z. T. Cong, and Z. D. Lei (2006), Interpreting the complementary relationship in non-humid environments based on the Budyko and Penman hypotheses, Geophys. Res. Lett., 33, L18402, doi:10.1029/2006GL027657.