New world, real world: Improvising English culture in seventeenth-century Virginia

Journal of Southern History

Volumn 74, Issue 1, 2008, Pages 31-88

  Carson, Cary ^b   Bowen, Joanne ^a   Graham, Willie ^a   McCartney, Martha ^b   Walsh, Lorena ^a  

^a Department of Archaeological Research

^b NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 45949090709     PISSN: 00224642     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (167)

1. and recently in Willie Graham, Carter L. Hudgins, Carl L. Lounsbury, Fraser D. Neiman, and James P. Whittenburg, "Adaptation and Innovation: Archaeological and Architectural Perspectives on the Seventeenth-Century Chesapeake," William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd ser., 64 (July 2007), 451-522
2. Albion's Seed: Four British Folkways in America (New York, 1989) is David Hackett Fischer's ambitious attempt to rehabilitate and reassert the case for strong continuities in British and colonial cultures
3. Peter J. Richerson and Robert Boyd, Not by Genes Alone: How Culture Transformed Human Evolution (Chicago, 2005), chap. 4
4. Stephen Shennan, Genes, Memes and Human History: Darwinian Archaeology and Cultural Evolution (London, 2002)
5. Fraser D. Neiman, "An Evolutionary Approach to Archaeological Inference: Aspects of Architectural Variation in the 17th-century Chesapeake" (Ph.D. dissertation, Yale University, 1990)
6. Stephen Shennan, "Cultural Transmission and Cultural Change," in Sander E. van der Leeuw and Robin Torrence, eds., What's New? A Closer Look at the Process of Innovation (London, 1989), 330-46
7. Glassie, Folk Housing in Middle Virginia: A Structural Analysis of Historic Artifacts (Knoxville, 1975)
8. and James Deetz, Invitation to Archaeology (Garden City, N.Y., 1967)
9. Joanne Bowen, "Foodways in the 18th-Century Chesapeake," in Theodore R. Reinhart, ed., The Archaeology of 18th-century Virginia (Richmond, 1996), 87-130
10. and Bowen, "Historical Ecology and the British Landscape," plenary talk presented to the Society for Historical Archaeology, Mobile, Alabama, 2002
11. Bowen, "Foodways in the 18th-Century Chesapeake"
12. Lorena S. Walsh, Ann Smart Martin, and Joanne Bowen, Provisioning Early American Towns. The Chesapeake: A Multidisciplinary Case Study [final report to the National Endowment for the Humanities for grant no. RO-22643-93] ([Williamsburg], 1997)
13. Biomass measures the amount of flesh represented by the weight of the archaeological bone. See Elizabeth J. Reitz and Elizabeth S. Wing, Zooarchaeology (Cambridge, Eng., 1999), 225-31
14. See also Benjamin Arbuckle, "Interpretations of Size Change in Cattle in the Colonial Chesapeake" (senior research paper, College of William and Mary, 1999)
15. and Richard H. Meadows, "The Use of Size Index Scaling Techniques for Research on Archaeolozoological Collections from the Middle East," in Cornelia Becker, Henriette Manhart, Joris Peters, and Jörg Schibier, eds., Historia Animalium ex Ossibus: Beiträge zur Paläoanatomie, Archäeologie, Ägyptologie, Ethnologis und Geschichte der Tiermedizin (Rahden, Germany, 1999), 285-300
16. Robert M. Malina and Claude Bouchard, Growth, Maturation, and Physical Activity (Champaign, Ill., 1991), 405-11
17. Kenneth R. Andrews, Trade, Plunder and Settlement: Maritime Enterprise and the Genesis of the British Empire, 1480-1630 (Cambridge, Eng., 1984), 312-25
18. James Horn, A Land As God Made It: Jamestown and the Birth of America (New York, 2005), 127-29, 164-89, 208-11
19. and Karen Ordahl Kupperman, The Jamestown Project (Cambridge, Mass., 2007), 210-40
20. David W. Stahle et al., "The Lost Colony and Jamestown Droughts," Science, April 24, 1998, pp. 564-67
21. William M. Kelso and Beverly A. Straube, Jamestown Rediscovery, 1994-2004 (Richmond, 2004), 155-92
22. Morgan, American Slavery, American Freedom, 71-91
23. and Horn, Land As God Made It, 73-130
24. Frederick J. Simoons, Eat Not This Flesh: Food Avoidances from Prehistory to the Present (2nd ed.; Madison, Wis., 1994), 177-80
25. McCartney, Documentary History of Jamestown Island, I, 25
26. For discussion on this topic see Helen C. Rountree, The Powhatan Indians of Virginia: Their Traditional Culture (Norman, Okla., 1989), 17-78
27. and Helen C. Rountree and Thomas E. Davidson, Eastern Shore Indians of Virginia and Maryland (Charlottesville, 1997)
28. Anthropological studies of this process include Daniel Hillel, Out of the Earth: Civilization and the Life of the Soil (Berkeley, 1991), 69-75
29. and Ernest L. Schusky, Culture and Agriculture: An Ecological Introduction to Traditional and Modern Farming Systems (New York, 1989)
30. For archaeological studies that describe the evolution of this agricultural system, see Andrew Sherratt, Economy and Society in Prehistoric Europe: Changing Perspectives (Princeton, 1997)
31. and Robert J. Wenke, Patterns in Prehistory: Humankind's First Three Million Years (3rd ed.; New York, 1990)
32. Katharine L. Brown and Nancy T. Sorrells, Virginia's Cattle Story: The First Four Centuries (Staunton, Va., 2004), 20, 27
33. Christopher Dyer, "Woodlands and Wood-Pasture in Western England," in Joan Thirsk, ed., The English Rural Landscape (Oxford, Eng., 2000), 97-121
34. On the variations and similarities of British practice across ecological regions, see Henry M. Miller, "Colonization and Subsistence Change on the 17th-Century Chesapeake Frontier" (Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1984), 54-72
35. and Nat Alcock and Cary Carson, West Country Farms: House-and-Estate Surveys, 1598-1764 (Oxford, Eng., 2007), chaps. 1 and 4
36. and Virginia DeJohn Anderson, Creatures of Empire: How Domestic Animals Transformed Early America (New York, 2004)
37. A biological perspective on the subject can be found in Juliet Clutton-Brock, "The Unnatural World: Behavioural Aspects of Humans and Animals in the Process of Domestication," in Aubrey Manning and James Serpell, eds., Animals and Human Society: Changing Perspectives (London, 1994), 23-35
38. For anthropological perspectives see Howard M. Hecker, "Domestication Revisited: Its Implications for Faunal Analysis," Journal of Field Archaeology, 9 (Summer 1982), 217-36
39. and Tim Ingold, "From Trust to Domination: An Alternative History of Human-Animal Relations," in Manning and Serpell, eds., Animals and Human Society, 1-22
40. What is known about the instinctive social behavior of the domestic cow comes from feral herds, since the wild progenitor, Bos primigenius (Aurochs), became extinct in the seventeenth century. See Viktor Reinhardt and Annie Reinhardt, "Cohesive Relationships in a Cattle Herd (Bos indicus)," Behaviour: An International Journal of Comparative Ethology, 77 (No. 3, 1981), 121-51
41. Robert Beverley, The History and Present State of Virginia, ed. by Louis B. Wright (1705; new ed., Chapel Hill, 1947), 37, 318 (quotations)
42. Caroline Grigson, "Porridge and Pannage: Pig Husbandry in Neolithic England," in Martin Bell and Susan Limbrey, eds., Archaeological Aspects of Woodland Ecology (Oxford, Eng., 1982), 297-314
43. Robert Trow-Smith, A History of British Livestock Husbandry to 1700 (London, 1957), 50-55
44. Kathleen Biddick, The Other Economy: Pastoral Husbandry on a Medieval Estate (Berkeley, 1989), 23-45
45. Miller, "Archaeological Perspective on the Evolution of Diet," 188-94
46. Bowen, "Foodways in the 18th-Century Chesapeake," 94-95, 106-15
47. Walsh, Martin, and Bowen, Provisioning Early American Towns, 29, 69-73, 349-52
48. Timothy Silver, "A Useful Arcadia: European Colonists as Biotic Factors in Chesapeake Forests," in Philip D. Curtin, Grace S. Brush, and George W. Fisher, eds., Discovering the Chesapeake: The History of an Ecosystem (Baltimore, 2001), 149-66
49. Beverley, History and Present State of Virginia, 125
50. Hugh Jones, The Present State of Virginia . . ., ed. by Richard L. Morton (1724; new ed., Chapel Hill, 1956), 78
51. and Harold F. Heady and R. Dennis Child, Rangeland Ecology and Management (Boulder, Colo., 1994)
52. Alfred W. Crosby, Ecological Imperialism: The Biological Expansion of Europe, 900-1900 (Cambridge, Eng., 1986), 177-82
53. Van Soest, Nutritional Ecology, 78
54. Alfred W. Crosby, Germs, Seeds, and Animals: Studies in Ecological History (Armonk, N.Y., 1994), 37-41, 66-69
55. Historians have written extensively on this subject. See Avery Odelle Craven, Soil Exhaustion as a Factor in the Agricultural History of Virginia and Maryland, 1606-1860 (Urbana, 1926), 25-72
56. Lorena S. Walsh, "Land Use, Settlement Patterns, and the Impact of European Agriculture, 1620-1820," in Curtin, Brush, and Fisher, eds., Discovering the Chesapeake, 220-48, esp. p. 239
57. Lois Green Carr and Russell R. Menard, "Land, Labor, and Economies of Scale in Early Maryland: Some Limits to Growth in the Chesapeake System of Husbandry," Journal of Economic History, 49 (June 1989), 407-18
58. Lois Green Carr, "Diversification in the Colonial Chesapeake: Somerset County, Maryland, in Comparative Perspective," in Carr, Morgan, and Russo, eds., Colonial Chesapeake Society, 342-88
59. and Harold B. Gill Jr., "Wheat Culture in Colonial Virginia," Agricultural History, 52 (July 1978), 380-93, esp. p. 382
60. See Walsh, Martin, and Bowen, Provisioning Early American Towns, 72
61. Samuel Taylor Elswick, "Predator Management and Colonial Culture, 1600-1741 : A Study in Historical Ecology" (M.A. thesis, College of William and Mary, 2005)
62. Hillel, Out of the Earth, 69-76
63. Beverley, History and Present State of Virginia, 291 (first and second quotations), 318
64. Jack P. Greene, ed., The Diary of Colonel London Carter of Sabine Hall, 1752-1778 (2 vols.; Charlottesville, 1965), I, 401 (third quotation)
65. Timothy Silver, A New Face on the Countryside: Indians, Colonists, and Slaves in South Atlantic Forests, 1500-1800 (New York, 1990), 180
66. Susan Power Bratton, "The Effect of the European Wild Boar, Sus scrofa, on Gray Beech Forest in the Great Smoky Mountains," Ecology, 56 (Autumn 1975), 1,356-66
67. David M. Schwartz, "Hog Havoc," National Wildlife, 26 (June-July 1988), 14-17, esp. p. 16
68. Kelso and Straube, Jamestown Rediscovery, 1994-2004, pp. 49-61
69. and "A Brief Declaration of the Plantation of Virginia during the First Twelve Years . . .," in Edward Wright Haile, ed., Jamestown Narratives: Eyewitness Accounts of the Virginia Colony. The First Decade: 1607-1617 (Champlain, Va., 1998), 893-911 (quotation on p. 901)
70. Carson et al., "Impermanent Architecture," 136-38, advanced the hypothesis that the oldest buildings known to archaeologists in Maryland and Virginia in the early 1980s - those discovered at Flowerdew Hundred and dated circa 1619 - had been built too early to reflect the process of New World invention. The fort buildings at Jamestown, dating a decade earlier, now turn an educated guess into solid fact
71. J. G. Hurst, "A Review of Archaeological Research (to 1968)," in Maurice Beresford and John G. Hurst, eds., Deserted Medieval Villages: Studies (London, 1971), 76-144
72. Philip L. Barbour, ed., The Complete Works of Captain John Smith (1580-1631) (3 vols.; Chapel Hill, 1986), III, 295
73. Documentary evidence for clay-walled buildings, a continuation of the practice of nogging walls with clay, and the haphazard alignment of posts inside clay walls suggest a hardy regional practice throughout the first half of the seventeenth century. See Willie Graham, A Report on the Nature of the Kirbye House Frame and Wall System (Williamsburg, 2004)
74. Carson et al., "Impermanent Architecture," 135-96
75. Norman F. Barka, The Archaeology of Flowerdew Hundred Plantation: The Stone House Foundation Site (Williamsburg, 1976)
76. Garry Wheeler Stone, "Society, Housing, and Architecture in Early Maryland: John Lewger's St. John's" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Pennsylvania, 1982)
77. Nicholas Luccketti, "The Road to James Fort," in William M. Kelso, Nicholas M. Luccketti, and Beverly A. Straube, Jamestown Rediscovery V (Richmond, 1999), 27-29
78. For the mud-and-stud method, common to the Lincolnshire fens, see Deetz, "Architecture of Early Virginia"
79. and Rodney Cousins, Lincolnshire Buildings in the Mud and Stud Tradition (Sleaford, Eng., 2000)
80. Garry Wheeler Stone, "The Roof Leaked, But the Price Was Right: The Virginia House Reconsidered," Maryland Historical Magazine, 99 (Fall 2004), 313-28
81. Julia A. King and Douglas H. Ubelaker, eds., Living and Dying on the 17th Century Patuxent Frontier (Crownsville, Md., 1996)
82. and Dwayne W. Pickett, "The John Page House Site: An Example of the Increase in Domestic Brick Architecture in Seventeenth-Century Tidewater Virginia" (M.A. thesis, College of William and Mary, 1996)
83. As for early public buildings built of brick, see Cary Carson, Willie Graham, Carl Lounsbury, and Martha McCartney, Description and Analysis of Structure 144, Jamestown, Virginia (Williamsburg, 2002), 2.1-2.29
84. and Carl Lounsbury, Willie Graham, Darin Ostrom, and Billie Graham, The Early Church at Jamestown, Virginia: A History and Precedents for Its Design and Reconstruction (Williamsburg, 2004)
85. Information and Direction to Such Persons as are Inclined to America, More Especially Those Related to the Province of Pensilvania ([London?], 1686), 4. Although intended for settlers bound for Pennsylvania, this tract included instructions needed to build what was essentially a vernacular house in Virginia
86. Mercer, English Vernacular Houses, 125
87. Nina Jennings, Clay Dabbins: Vernacular Buildings of the Solway Plain (Kendal, Eng., 2003), 61-66, 143-47
88. Willie Graham, "Preindustrial Framing in the Chesapeake," in Alison K. Hoagland and Kenneth A. Breisch, eds., Constructing Image, Identity, and Place (Knoxville, 2003), 179-96
89. Information and Direction to Such Persons as are Inclined to America, 4 (quotations)
90. Dell Upton, "Board Roofing in Tidewater Virginia," Bulletin of the Association for Preservation Technology, 8 (No. 4, 1976), 22-43
91. Cary Carson, "The 'Virginia House' in Maryland," Maryland Historical Magazine, 69 (Summer 1974), 185-96
92. Al Luckenbach, Providence 1649: The History and Archaeology of Anne Arundel County Maryland's First European Settlement (Crownsville, Md., 1995)
93. For description and dating of Cedar Park, see Donna M. Ware, Anne Arundel's Legacy: The Historic Properties of Anne Arundel County (Annapolis, Md., 1990), 28-30
94. Ivor Noël Hume and Audrey Noël Hume, The Archaeology of Martin's Hundred (2 vols.; Philadelphia, 2001)
95. Silas D. Hurry, Martin E. Sullivan, Timothy B. Riordan, and Henry M. Miller, "Once the Metropolis of Maryland": The History and Archaeology of Maryland's First Capital (St. Mary's City, Md., 2001)
96. Henry M. Miller, "Lord Baltimore's Colony of Maryland and Its Capital of St. Mary's City 1634-1695," Avalon Chronicles, 8 (2003), 225-60
97. Luckenbach, Providence 1649
98. William M. Kelso, Jamestown, the Buried Truth (Charlottesville, 2006)
99. and Audrey J. Horning, "'A Verie Fit Place to Erect a Great Cittie': Comparative Contextual Analysis of Archaeological Jamestown" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Pennsylvania, 1995)
100. McCartney, Documentary History of Jamestown Island, vols. II and III
101. Warren M. Billings, Jamestown and the Founding of the Nation (Gettysburg, Pa., 1990), 31-54, 99-104
102. Carl Bridenbaugh, Jamestown, 1544-1699 (New York, 1980), 107-17
103. John W. Reps, Tidewater Towns: City Planning in Colonial Virginia and Maryland (Williamsburg, 1972), 46-55
104. Wesley Frank Craven, Dissolution of the Virginia Company: The Failure of a Colonial Experiment (New York, 1932)
105. Christopher R. DeCorse, An Archaeology of Elmina: Africans and Europeans on the Gold Coast, 1400-1900 (Washington, D.C., 2001)
106. Graham Connah, African Civilizations: Precolonial Cities and States in Tropical Africa: An Archaeological Perspective (Cambridge, Eng., 1987)
107. A. W. Lawrence, Trade Castles and Forts of West Africa (London, 1963)
108. For English knowledge of the Portuguese African trade, see Kupperman, Jamestown Project, 25-32
109. Kelso, Jamestown, the Buried Truth
110. Carter C. Hudgins, "Articles of Exchange or Ingredients of New World Metallurgy? An Examination of the Industrial Origins and Metallurgical Functions of Scrap Copper at Early Jamestown (c. 1607-1617)," Early American Studies, 3 (Spring 2005), 32-64
111. Seth Mallios, The Deadly Politics of Giving: Exchange and Violence at Ajacan, Roanoke, and Jamestown (Tuscaloosa, 2006)
112. Richard Hakluyt, Virginia Voyages from Hakluyt, ed. by David B. Quinn and Alison M. Quinn (London, 1973), 22-23
113. Charles E. Hatch Jr., "Glassmaking in Virginia, 1607-1625," William and Mary Quarterly, 2nd ser., 21 (April 1941), 119-38 (quotation on p. 127)
114. Helen C. Rountree, Pocahontas, Powhatan, Opechancanough: Three Indian Lives Changed by Jamestown (Charlottesville, 2005)
115. Martin D. Gallivan, James River Chiefdoms: The Rise of Social Inequality in the Chesapeake (Lincoln, Neb., 2003)
116. Karen Ordahl Kupperman, Indians and English: Facing Off in Early America (Ithaca. N.Y., 2000)
117. Frederic W. Gleach, Powhatan's World and Colonial Virginia: A Conflict of Cultures (Lincoln, Neb., 1997)
118. James Axtell, The Rise and Fall of the Powhatan Empire: Indians in Seventeenth-Century Virginia (Williamsburg, 1995)
119. Barbour, ed., Complete Works of Captain John Smith, II, 187-90
120. Joan Thirsk, Economic Policy and Projects: The Development of a Consumer Society in Early Modern England (Oxford, Eng., 1978)
121. Kingsbury, ed., Records of the Virginia Company, I, 350
122. Francis Bacon, "Of Plantations," in Alexander Brown, ed., The Genesis of the United States . . . (2 vols.; Boston, 1890), II, 799-801
123. Irene W. D. Hecht, "The Virginia Colony, 1607-1640: A Study in Frontier Growth" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Washington, 1969), chaps. 6 and 7, appendix 4C
124. Charles E. Hatch Jr., The First Seventeen Years: Virginia, 1607-1624 (Williamsburg, 1957)
125. For the most recent discussion of the date of settlement and location of particular plantations, see Martha W. McCartney, Virginia Immigrants and Adventurers, 1607-1635: A Biographical Dictionary (Baltimore, 2007), 33-74
126. and Kelso, Luccketti, and Straube, Jamestown Rediscovery V, 15-20
127. H. R. McIlwaine, ed., Minutes of the Council and General Court of Colonial Virginia, 1622-1632, 1670-1676, with Notes and Excerpts from Original Council and General Court Records, into 1683, Now Lost (Richmond, 1924). 14-15, 93, 149-50
128. De Vries, Voyages, 53, 183
129. Also see Sainsbury et al., eds., Calendar of State Papers, Colonial Series, I, 268-69
130. "Instructions to Governor Wyatt," in Hening, ed., Statutes at Large, I, 114-18, esp. p. 116
131. Audrey J. Horning and Andrew C. Edwards, Archaeology in New Towne, 1993-1995 (Williamsburg, 2000)
132. and Audrey J. Horning and Karen B. Wehner, Archaeological Investigations at Jamestown's Structure 24 (Williamsburg, 2001)
133. Also see Worth Bailey, "Lime Preparation at Jamestown in the Seventeenth Century," William and Mary Quarterly, 2nd ser., 18 (January 1938), 1-12
134. and J. C. Harrington, "Seventeenth Century Brickmaking and Tilemaking at Jamestown, Virginia," Virginia Magazine of History and Biography, 58 (January 1950), 16-39
135. J. C. Harrington, A Tryal of Glasse (Richmond, 1972)
136. Warren M. Billings, Sir William Berkeley and the Forging of Colonial Virginia (Baton Rouge, 2004), 136-62
137. Billings, "Sir William Berkeley and the Diversification of the Virginia Economy," Virginia Magazine of History and Biography, 104 (Autumn 1996), 433-54
138. Sir William Berkeley to Council for Foreign Plantations, July 21, 1662, CO 1/16, fols. 183-84
139. Berkeley, Discourse and View of Virginia, 4
140. Carson et al., Evaluation of Previous Archaeology, 22-31 (Structures 17 and 105), 83-87 (Structure 102). 111-16 (Structure 115)
141. Carson, Graham, Lounsbury, and McCartney, Description and Analysis of Structure 144, pp. 1.1-1.15
142. Berkeley to Hyde, March 30, 1663, Egerton Mss. 2,395
143. "Grievances of the Inhabitants of Surrey County," in Sainsbury et al., eds., Calendar of State Papers, Colonial Series, X, 45
144. See the entries for Thomas Woodhouse and Thomas Woodhurst in McCartney, Documentary History of Jamestown Island, III, 401-2
145. Kelso, Jamestown, the Buried Truth, 194, 197-202, confuses the "Berkeley Row" with Structure 17
146. H. R. McIlwaine, ed., Journals of the House of Burgesses, 1659/60-1693 (Richmond, 1914), 27
147. Sainsbury et al., eds., Calendar of State Papers, Colonial Series, V, 533
148. "From the House of Burgesses," in Billings, ed., Papers of Sir William Berkeley, 282-83
149. Beverley, History and Present State of Virginia, 67 (second and third quotations)
150. Billings, Sir William Berkeley, 184
151. Billings, Jamestown and the Founding of the Nation, 101-4
152. Carson et al., Evaluation of Previous Archaeology, 5-10 (Structure 1/2), 22-31 (Structures 17 and 105), 35-40 (Structure 19), 111-16 (Structure 115), and 129-34 (Structure 125)
153. For Sherwood's other Jamestown properties, see Carson et al., Evaluation of Previous Archaeology, 5-10 (Structure 1/2) and 129-34 (Structure 125)
154. Warren M. Billings, Virginia's Viceroy. Their Majesties' Governor General: Francis Howard, Baron Howard of Effingham (Fairfax, Va., 1991)
155. Samuel H. Yonge, The Site of Old "James Towne," 1607-1698: A Brief Historical and Topographical Sketch of the First American Metropolis (Richmond, 1904), 27 (second quotation)
156. H. R. McIlwaine, ed., Legislative Journals of the Council of Colonial Virginia (3 vols.; Richmond, 1918-1919), I, 93-94 (quotations on p. 93)
157. Warren M. Billings, A Little Parliament: The Virginia General Assembly in the Seventeenth Century (Richmond, 2004), 148
158. Billings, Little Parliament, 146
159. McIlwaine, ed., Legislative Journals of the Council of Colonial Virginia, I, 93-94 (quotation on p. 93)
160. Beverley, History and Present State of Virginia, 97 (first quotation)
161. Yonge, Site of Old "James Towne," 27 (second and third quotations)
162. "The History of Bacon's and Ingram's Rebellion, 1676," in Andrews, ed., Narratives of the Insurrections, 70
163. Hening, ed., Statutes at Large, III, 45-46
164. Peter Borsay, The English Urban Renaissance: Culture and Society in the Provincial Town, 1660-1770 (Oxford, Eng., 1989)
165. Shennan, Genes, Memes and Human History, 35-65
166. Richerson and Boyd, Not by Genes Alone, 99-147
167. Carl R. Lounsbury, An Illustrated Glossary of Early Southern Architecture and Landscape (New York, 1994), 81-82