Pathogens transmitted by migratory birds: Threat perceptions to poultry health and production

International Journal of Poultry Science

Volumn 7, Issue 6, 2008, Pages 516-525

  Dhama, K ^a   Mahendran, M ^a   Tomar, S ^b  

^a INDIAN VETERINARY RESEARCH INSTITUTE   (India)

^b CENTRAL AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH INSTITUTE   (India)

Author keywords

Avian influenza; Biosecurity; Migratory birds; Poultry diseases; Surveillance; Wild birds

Indexed keywords

ANATID HERPESVIRUS 1; ANIMALIA; AVES; AVIAN METAPNEUMOVIRUS; BACTERIA (MICROORGANISMS); BORRELIA BURGDORFERI; CAMPYLOBACTER; CHLAMYDOPHILA PSITTACI; EQUIDAE; NEWCASTLE DISEASE VIRUS; PASTEURELLA MULTOCIDA; PESTIVIRUS; SALMONELLA; WEST NILE VIRUS;

EID: 45849151638     PISSN: 16828356     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3923/ijps.2008.516.525     Document Type: Review

References (116)

1. Alexander, D.J., 2000. A review of avian influenza in different bird species. Vet. Microbiol., 74: 3-13.
2. Alexander, D.J., 2003. Newcastle disease. In: Saif, Y.M., H.J. Barnes, A.M. Fadly, J.R. Glisson, L.R. McDougald and D.E. Swayne (Eds.). Diseases of Poultry. Chapter 2, 11th Edn. Iowa State University Press, Ames, IA, USA, pp: 64-87.
3. Anaeto, M. and G. Chioma, 2007. Avian influenza in Nigeria: Suggestions for eradication. Int. J. Poult. Sci., 6: 367-371.
4. Andersen, A.A. and D. Vanrompay, 2000. Avian chlamydiosis. Rev. Sci. Tech., 19: 396-404.
5. Barnes, H.J., J. Vaillancourt and W.B. Gross, 2003. Colibacillosis. In: Saif, Y.M., H.J. Barnes, A.M. Fadly, J.R. Glisson, L.R. McDougald and D.E. Swayne (Eds.). Diseases of Poultry. Chapter 18, 11th Edn. Iowa State University Press, Ames, IA, USA, pp: 631-652.
6. Becker, W.B., 1966. The isolation and classification of tern virus: Influenza virus A/tern/South Africa/1961. J. Hygiene, 64: 309-320.
7. Bennett, R.S., B. McComb, H.J. Shin, M.K. Njenga, K.V. Nagaraja and D.A. Halvorson, 2002. Detection of avian pneumovirus in wild Canada (Branta canadensis) and blue-winged teal (Anas discors) geese. Avian Dis., 46: 1025-1029.
8. Bennett, R.S., R. LaRue, D. Shaw, Q. Yu, K.V. Nagaraja, D.A. Halvorson and M.K. Njenga, 2005. A wild goose metapneumovirus containing a large attachment glycoprotein is avirulent but immunoprotective in domestic turkeys. J. Virol., 79: 14834-14842.
9. Bennett, R.S., J. Nezworski, B.T. Velayudhan, K.V. Nagaraja, D.H. Zeman, N. Dyer, T. Graham, D.C. Lauer, M.K. Njenga and D.A. Halvorson, 2004. Evidence of avian pneumovirus spread beyond Minnesota among wild and domestic birds in central North America. Avian Dis., 48: 902-908.
10. Bermudez, A.J. and B.S. Brown, 2003. Principles of Disease Prevention: Diagnosis and Control. In: Y.M. Saif, H.J. Barnes, J.R. Glisson, A.M. Fadly, L.R. McDougald and D.E. Swayne (Eds.). Diseases of Poultry, Chapter 1, 11th Edn., Iowa State University Press, Ames, IA, pp: 17-55.
11. Bolte, A.L., J. Meurer and E.F. Kaleta, 1999. Avian host spectrum of avipoxviruses. Avian Pathol., 28: 415-432.
12. Botzler, R.G., 1991. Epizootiology of avian cholera in wildfowl: J. Wildlife Dis., 27: 367-395.
13. Brand, C.J., 1984. Avian cholera in the Central and Mississippi Flyways, during, 1979-80. J. Wildlife Manag., 48: 399-406.
14. Brand, C.J., 1989. Chlamydial infections in free-living birds. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc., 195: 1531-1535.
15. Broman, T., J. Waldenstrom, D. Dahlgren, I. Carlsson, I. Eliasson and B. Olsen, 2004. Diversities and similarities in PFGE profiles of Campylobacter jejuni isolated from migrating birds and humans. J. Appl. Microbiol., 96: 834-843.
16. Broman, T., H. Palmgren, S. Bergstrom, M. Sellin, J. Waldenstrom, M.L. Danielsson-Tham and B. Olsen, 2002. Campylobacter jejuni in black-headed gulls (Larus ridibundus): Prevalence, genotypes and influence on C. jejuni epidemiology. J. Clin. Microbiol., 40: 4594-4602.
17. Burgess, E.C., J. Ossa and T.M. Yuill, 1979. Duck plague: A carrier state in waterfowl. Avian Dis., 23: 940-949.
18. Burgos, S. and S.A. Burgos, 2007a. Influenza A viruses in poultry: A condensed review. Int. J. Poult. Sci., 6: 705-708.
19. Burgos, S. and S.A. Burgos, 2007b. Influence of exotic bird and wildlife trade on avian influenza transmission dynamics: Animal-human Interface. Int. J. Poult. Sci., 6: 535-538.
20. Burgos, S. and S.A. Burgos, 2007c. Refocusing and reshaping of highly pathogenic avian influenza preventive strategies in rural settings. Int. J. Poult. Sci., 6: 527-530.
21. Capua, I. and D.J. Alexander, 2007. Avian influenza in birds-a moving target. Influenza Resp. Vir., 1: 11-18.
22. Capua, I., S. Marangon, M. Pozza, C. Terregino and G. Cattoli, 2003. Avian influenza in Italy, 1997-2001. Avian Dis., 47: 839-843.
23. Chen, H.X., H.G. Shen, X.L. Li, J.Y. Zhou, Y.Q. Hou, J.Q. Guo and J.Q. Hu, 2006. Seroprevalance and identification of influenza. A virus infection from migratory wild waterfowl in China (2004-2005). J. Vet. Med. Series B., 53: 166-170.
24. Converse, K.A. and G.A. Kidd, 2001. Duck plague epizootics in the United States, 1967-1995. J. Wildlife Dis., 37: 347-357.
25. Dash, B.B., S.D. Singh, T.R. Mohanty, J.M. Kataria and K. Dhama, 2004. Prevalence of diseases of poultry flocks in captive and free-flying birds of India. In: Compendium of International Conference on Bird and Environment, Ornithological Society of India, 2004, pp: 86.
26. Dey, S., C. Madhan Mohan, J.M. Kataria and K. Dhama, 2005. Common disease conditions of ducks. Poult. World, 1: 19-25.
27. Dhama, K., N. Senthil Kumar, J.M. Kataria and B.B. Dash, 2003. Biosecurity - an effective tool to prevent many threats to poultry health: Part I and II. Indian Poult. Rev., 35: 35-41, 39-44.
28. Dhama, K., R.S. Chauhan, J.M. Kataria, M. Mahendran and S. Tomar, 2005. Avian influenza: The current perspectives. J. Immunol. Immunopathol., 7: 1-33.
29. Ehlers, M., M. Moller, S. Marangon and N. Ferre, 2003. The use of Geographic Information System (GIS) in the frame of the contingency plan implemented during the 1999-2001 avian influenza (AI) epidemic in Italy. Avian Dis., 47: 1010-1014.
30. Feare, C.J., 2007. The role of wild birds in the spread of HPAI H5N1. Avian Dis., 51: 440-447.
31. Fereidouni, S.R., M.H. Bozorghmehrifard, E. Starick, O. Werner, H. Amini, H. Modirrousta and M. Aghakhan, 2005. Serological monitoring of avian influenza in migratory birds of Iran. Arch. Razi Inst., 60: 11-19.
32. Flint, P.L., 2007. Applying the scientific method when assessing the influence of migratory birds on the dispersal of H5N1. Virol. J., 4: 132.
33. Fouchier, R., B. Olsen, T.M. Bestebroer, S. Herfst, L. Van Der Kemp, G.F. Rimmelzwaan and A.D.M.E. Osterhaus, 2003. Influenza: A virus surveillance in wild birds in northern Europe in 1999 and 2000. Avian Dis., 47: 857-860.
34. Franson, J.C. and J.E. Pearson, 1995. Probable epizootic chlamydiosis in wild California (Larus californicus) and ring-billed (Larus delawarensis) gulls in North Dakota. J. Wildlife Dis., 31: 424-427.
35. Fulton, R.M. and C.O. Thoen, 2003. Tuberculosis. In: Saif, Y.M., H.J. Barnes, A.M. Fadly, J.R. Glisson, L.R. McDougald and D.E. Swayne (Eds.). Diseases of Poultry. Chapter 24, 11th Edn. Iowa State University Press, Ames, IA, USA, pp: 836-844.
36. Gilbert, M., P. Chaitaweesub, T. Parakarnawongsa, S. Premasthira, T. Tiensin, W. Kalpravridh, H. Wagner and J. Slingenenbergh, 2006a. Free grazing ducks and highly pathogenic avian influenza, Thailand. Emerg. Infect. Dis., 12: 227-234.
37. Gilbert, M., X.M. Xia, J. Domech, J. Lubroth, V. Martin and J. Slingenbergh, 2006b. Anatidae migration in the Western Paleartic and the spread of highly pathogenic avian influenza H5N1 virus. Emerg. Infect. Dis., 12: 1650-1656.
38. Glisson, J.R., C.L. Hofacre and J.P. Christensen, 2003. Fowl Cholera. In: Y.M. Saif, H.J. Barnes, J.R. Glisson, A.M. Fadly, L.R. McDougald and D.E. Swayne (Eds.). Diseases of Poultry, Chapter 19, 11th Edn., Blackwell publishing Company, Iowa State Press, Iowa, USA, pp: 658-676.
39. Gough, R.E., 2003. Avian pneumoviruses. In: Saif, Y.M., H.J. Barnes, A.M. Fadly, J.R. Glisson, L.R. McDougald and D.E. Swayne (Eds.). Diseases of Poultry. Chapter 2, 11th edn. Iowa State University Press, Ames, IA, USA, pp: 92-99.
40. Grimes, J.E., 1978. Transmission of Chlamydiae from grackles to Turkeys. Avian Dis., 22: 308-312.
41. Grimes, J.E., K.J. Owens and J.R. Singer, 1979. Experimental transmission of Chlamydia psittaci to turkeys from wild birds. Avian Dis., 24: 915-926.
42. Gulka, C.M., T.H. Piela, V.J. Yates and C. Bagshaw, 1984. Evidence of exposure of waterfowl and other aquatic birds to the hemagglutinating duck adenovirus identical to EDS-76 virus. J. Wildlife Dis., 20: 1-5.
43. Hay, S.I., S.E. Randolph and D.J. Rogers, 2000. Remote sensing and geographical information systems in epidemiology, Vol. 47. Academic Press, Amsterdam, Boston.
44. Hubalek, Z. and J. Halouzka, 1999. West Nile fever- a reemerging mosquito-borne viral disease in Europe. Emerg. Infect. Dis., 5: 643-650.
45. Hubalek, Z., 1994. Pathogenic microorganisms associated with free-living birds: A Rev. Acta Scient. Natural. Brno, 28: 1-74.
46. Hubalek, Z., 2004. An annotated checklist of pathogenic micro-organisms associated with migratory birds. J. Wildlife Dis., 40: 639-659.
47. Hunter, B. and G. Wobeser, 1980. Pathology of experimental avian cholera in mallard ducks (Anas platyrhynchos). Avian Dis., 24: 403-414.
48. Jones, R.C., 2006. Avian pneumoviruses - an update. Int. Hatch. Practice., 21: 13-15.
49. Kaleta, E.F. and E.M.A. Taday, 2003. Avian host range of Chlamydophila spp. based on isolation, antigen detection and serology. Avian Pathol., 32: 435-462.
50. Kaleta, E.F., S.E.D. Khalaf and O. Siegmann, 1980. Antibodies to egg-drop syndrome 76 virus in wild birds in possible conjunction with egg-shell problems. Avian Pathol., 9: 587-590.
51. Kataria, J.M., C. Madan Mohan, S. Dey, B.B. Dash and K. Dhama, 2005. Diagnosis and immunoprophylaxis of economically important poultry diseases: A Review. Ind. J. Anim. Sci., 75: 555-567.
52. Kataria, J.M., S.D. Singh, K. Dhama and K.C. Verma, 2001. Laboratory Manual on "Poultry disease diagnosis", Publication of Indian Veterinary Research Institute (I.V.R.I), Izatnagar (U.P.), India.
53. Kataria, J.M., S.K. Gupta and K. Dhama, 2006. Role of wild birds in spread of avian influenza. Compendium of ICAR Summer School on Recent Trends in Wildlife Health Management and Forensics, held on Sept. 08-28, 2006 at Division of Medicine, Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar (U.P.), India, pp: 123-127.
54. Kawaoka, Y., T.M. Chambers, W.L. Sladen and R.G. Webster, 1988. Is the gene pool of influenza viruses in shorebirds and gulls different from that in wild ducks? Virology, 163: 247-250.
55. Keymer, I.F., 1958. A survey and review of the causes of mortality in British birds and the significance of wild birds as disseminators of disease. Vet. Rec., 70: 713-720.
56. Khawaja, J.Z., K. Naeem, Z. Ahmed and S. Ahmad, 2005. Surveillance of avian influenza viruses in wild birds in areas adjacent to epicenter of an outbreak in federal capital territory of Pakistan. Int. J. Poult. Sci., 4: 39-43.
57. Kobayashi, H., M. Kanazaki, Y. Shimizu, H. Nakajima, M.M. Khatun, E. Hata and M. Kubo, 2007. Salmonella isolates from cloacal swabs and footpads of wild birds in the immediate environment of Tokyo Bay. J. Vet. Med. Sci., 69: 309-311.
58. Komar, N., 2000. West Nile viral encephalitis. Rev. Sci. Tech., 19: 166-176.
59. Kommers, G.D., D.J. King, B.S. Seal and C.C. Brown, 2003. Pathogenesis of chicken-passaged Newcastle disease viruses isolated from chickens and wild and exotic birds. Avian Dis., 47: 319-329.
60. Lei, F., S. Tang, D. Zhao, X. Zhang, Z. Kou, Y. Li, Z. Zhang, Z. Yin, S. Chen, S. Li, D. Zhang, B. Yan and T. Li, 2007. Characterization of H5N1 influenza viruses isolated from migratory birds in Qinghai province of China in 2006. Avian Dis., 51: 568-572.
61. Ley, D.H., 2003. Mycoplasma gallisepticum infection. In: Saif, Y.M., H.J. Barnes, A.M. Fadly, J.R. Glisson, L.R. McDougald and D.E. Swayne (Eds.). Diseases of Poultry. Chapter 22, 11th Edn. Iowa State University Press, Ames, IA, USA, pp: 722-744.
62. Liu, J., H. Xiao, F. Lei, Q. Zhu, K. Qin, X.W. Zhang, X.L. Zhang, D. Zhao, G. Wang, Y. Feng, J. Ma, W. Liu, J. Wang and G.F. Gao, 2005. Highly pathogenic H5N1 influenza virus infection in migratory birds. Sci, 309: 1206.
63. Lu, Y.S., H.J. Tsai, D.F., Lin, S.Y. Chiu, Y.L. Lee and C. Lee, 1985. Survey on antibody against egg drop syndrome 1976 virus among bird species in Taiwan. J. Chin. Soc. Vet. Sci., 11: 151-156.
64. Lwamba, H.C., R.S. Bennett, D.C. Lauer, D.A. Halvorson and M.K. Njenga, 2002. Characterization of avian metapneumoviruses isolated in the USA. Anim. Health Res. Rev., 3: 107-117.
65. Malkinson, M. and Y. Weisman, 1980. Serological survey for the prevalence of antibodies to egg-drop syndrome 1976 virus in domesticated and wild birds in Israel. Avian Pathol., 9: 421-426.
66. Mathew, T., K. Dhama, J.M. Kataria and M. Mahendran, 2006. Avian influenza. In: Mathew, T.M. and T. Mathew (Eds.). Influenza and it's Global Public Health Significance. Thajema Publishers, West Orange NJ, USA, pp: 49-93.
67. McFerran, J.B. and B.N. Adair, 2003. Egg drop syndrome. In. Y.M. Saif, H.J. Barnes, J.R. Glisson, A.M. Fadly, L.R. McDougald and D.E. Swayne (Eds.). Diseases of Poultry, Chapter 8, 11th Edn. Iowa State University Press, Ames, IA, pp: 227-237.
68. McNulty, M.S., 2003. Rotavirus infections. In: Saif, Y.M., H.J. Barnes, A.M. Fadly, J.R. Glisson, L.R. McDougald and D.E. Swayne (Eds.). Diseases of Poultry. Chapter 12, 11th Edn. Iowa State University Press, Ames, IA, USA, pp: 308-320.
69. Mehrabanpour, M.J., H. Dadras, A. Khodakaram-Tafti, A. Rahimian and A. Toffan, 2007. Pathological findings of highly pathogenic avian influenza virus A/Duck/Vietnam/12/2005 (H5N1) in Turkeys. Int. J. Poult. Sci., 6: 679-683.
70. Millan, J., G. Aduriz, B. Moreno, R.A. Juste and M. Barral, 2004. Salmonella isolates from wild birds and mammals in the Basque Country (Spain). Rev. Sci. Tech., 23: 905-911.
71. Moore, J.E., D. Gilpin, E. Crothers, A. Canney, A. Kaneko and M. Matsuda, 2002. Occurrence of Campylobacter spp. and Cryptosporidium spp. in seagulls (Larus spp.). Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis., 2: 111-114.
72. Mulder, R., 1997. Transmission of avian pathogens. Biosecurity in Poultry Production in the next century. Acta Vet. Hung., 45: 307-315.
73. Normile, D., 2006. Avian influenza. Evidence points to migratory birds in H5N1 spread. Sci., 311: 1225.
74. Olsen, B., V.J., Munster, A. Wallensten, J. Waldenstrom, A.D. Osterhaus and R.A. Fouchier, 2006. Global patterns of influenza A virus in wild birds. Sci., 312: 384-388.
75. Page, L.A., 1976. Observations on the involvement of wildlife in an epornitic of chlamydiosis in domestic turkeys. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc., 169: 932.
76. Palmgren, H., M. Sellin, S. Bergstrom and B. Olsen, 1997. Enteropathogenic bacteria in migrating birds arriving in Sweden. Scand. J. Infect. Dis., 29: 565-568.
77. Pearson, G.L. and D.R. Cassidy, 1997. Perspectives on the diagnosis, epizootiology and control of the 1973 duck plague epizootic in wild waterfowl at Lake Andes, South Dakota. J. Wildlife Dis., 33: 681-705.
78. Pennycott, T.W., A. Park and H.A. Mather, 2006. Isolation of different serovars of Salmonella enterica from wild birds in Great Britain between 1995 and 2003. Vet Rec., 158: 817-820.
79. Peroulis, I. and K. O'Riley, 2004. Detection of avian paramyxoviruses and influenza viruses amongst wild bird populations in Victoria. Aust. Vet. J., 82: 79-82.
80. Petersen, L., E.M. Nielsen, J. Engberg, S.L. On and H.H. Dietz, 2001. Comparison of genotypes and serotypes of Campylobacter jejuni isolated from Danish wild mammals and birds and from broiler flocks and humans. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 67: 3115-3121.
81. Puckett, C. and J. Takekawa, 2006. Satellites help scientists track migratory birds: GPS, latest tool in fight against avian influenza. In: Sound Waves, News Letter of US Geological Survey, e-Edn., Nov./Dec. 2006.
82. Rappole, J.H. and Z. Hubalek, 2000. Migratory birds and West Nile virus. J. Appl. Microbiol., 94: 47-58.
83. Rappole, J.H., S.R. Derrickson and Z. Hubalek, 2000. Migratory birds and spread of West Nile virus in the Western Hemisphere. Emerg. Infect Dis., 6: 319-328.
84. Reche, M.P., P.A. Jimenez, F. Alvarez, J.E. Garcia de los Rios, A.M. Rojas and P. de Pedro, 2003. Incidence of salmonellae in captive and wild free-living raptorial birds in central Spain. J. Vet. Med. B. Infect. Dis. Vet. Public Health, 50: 42-44.
85. Reed, K.D., J.K. Meece, J.S. Henkel and S.K. Shukla, 2003. Birds, migration and emerging zoonoses: West Nile Fever, Lyme Disease, Influenza A and enteropathogens. Clin. Med. Res., 1: 5-12.
86. Roberts, J.P. and J.E. Grimes, 1978. Chlamydia shedding by four species of wild birds. Avian Dis., 22: 698-706.
87. Sacks, J.J., L. Spencer, L.M. Baldy, S. Berta, C.M. Patton, M.C. White, W.J. Bigler and J.J. Witte, 1986. Epidemic campylobacteriosis associated with a community water supply. Am. J. Pub. Health., 76: 424-429.
88. Sandhu, T.S. and S.A. Shawky, 2003. Duck viral enteritis (Duck plague). In: Saif, Y.M., H.J. Barnes, A.M. Fadly, J.R. Glisson, L.R. McDougald and D.E. Swayne (Eds.). Diseases of Poultry. Chapter 13, 11th Edn. Iowa State University Press, Ames, IA, USA, pp: 354-363.
89. Sanjaatogtokh, R., 2005. Highly pathogenic avian influenza in Mongolia in migratory birds - Follow up report No.1. Disease Information, 19 August 2005, Vol. 18 - No. 33. Office International des Epizooties, Paris, France.
90. Schwarzova, K., T. Betakova, J. Nemeth and A. Mizakova, 2006. Detection of Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato and Chlamydophila psittaci in throat and cloacal swabs from birds migrating through Slovakia. Folia Microbiol. (Praha), 51: 653-658.
91. Sensale, M., A. Cuomo, L. Dipineto, A. Santaniello, M. Calabria, L.F. Menna and A. Fioretti, 2006. Survey of Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli in different taxa and ecological guilds of migratory birds. Italian J. Anim. Sci., 5: 291-294.
92. Senthilkumar, N., D. Govindarajan, K. Dhama and J.M. Kataria, 2003. Egg drop syndrome - 76 (EDS-76) virus - A Rev. Indian J. Comp. Microbiol. Immunol. Infect. Dis., 24: 1-15.
93. Shchelkanov, M. Iu, E.V. Usachev, I.T. Fediakina, D.E. Kireev, VIu. Anan'ev, M.N. Sankov, V.M. Chumakov, A.A. Slavskii, S.A. Kolomeets, V.I. Semenov, N.L. Baranov, V.N. Gorelikov, I.O. Suslov, A.G. Prilipov, D.V. Maslov, E.A. Nepoklonov, S.S. Iamnikova and D.K. L'vov, 2006. Newcastle disease virus in the populations of wild birds in the south of the Primorye Territory in the period of autumn migrations in 2001-2004. Vopr. Virusol., 51: 37-41.
94. Shin, H.J., K.V. Nagaraja, B. McComb, D.A. Halvorson, F.F. Jirjis, D.P. Shaw, B.S. Seal and M.K. Njenga, 2002. Isolation of avian pneumovirus from mallard ducks that is genetically similar to viruses isolated from neighboring commercial Turkeys. Virus Res., 83: 207-212.
95. Shin, H.J., M.K. Njenga, B. McComb, D.A. Halvorson and K.V. Nagaraja, 2000. Avian pneumovirus (APV) RNA from wild and sentinel birds in the United States has genetic homology with RNA from APV isolates from domestic turkeys. J. Clin. Microbiol., 38: 4282-4284.
96. Shortridge, K.F. and D.S. Melville, 2006. Domestic poultry and migratory birds in the interspecies transmission of avian influenza viruses: A view from Hong Kong. In: G.C. Boere, C.A. Galbraith and D.A. Stroud (Eds.). Waterbirds Around The World. Edinburgh, UK, pp: 427-431.
97. Singh, S.V., D.D. Singh and R.S. Chauhan, 2003. Migratory birds: How dangerous can they be? Zoos' Print., 18: 29-30.
98. Stallknecht, D.E. and S.M. Shane, 1988. Host range of avian influenza virus in free-living birds. Vet. Res. Commun., 12: 125-141.
99. Stroud, D.A., N.C. Davidson, R. West, D.A. Scott, L. Hanstra, O. Thorup, B. Ganter and S. Delany, 2004. Status of migratory wader populations in Africa and Western Eurasia in the 1990s. Int. Water Studies, 15: 1-259.
100. Sturm-Ramirez, K.M., T. Ellis, B. Bousfield, L. Bissett, K. Dyrting, J.E. Rehg, L. Poon, Y. Guan, M. Peiris and R.G. Webster, 2004. Reemerging H5N1 influenza viruses in Hong Kong in 2002 are highly pathogenic to ducks. J. Virol., 78: 4892-4901.
101. Swayne, D.E. and D.A. Halvorson, 2003. Influenza. In: Saif, Y.M., H.J. Barnes, A.M. Fadly, J.R. Glisson, L.R. McDougald and D.E. Swayne (Eds.). Diseases of Poultry. Chapter 5, 11th Edn. Iowa State University Press, Ames, IA, USA, pp: 135-160.
102. Takakuwa, H., T. Ito, A. Takada, K. Okazaki and H. Kida, 1998. Potentially virulent Newcastle disease viruses are maintained in migratory waterfowl populations. Jap. J. Vet. Res., 45: 207-215.
103. Tomar, S., K. Dhama, M. Mahendran and J.M. Kataria, 2006. Avian campylobacteriosis in relation to public health. Poult. Planner, 7: 19-25.
104. UNEP, 2005. Convention on migratory species, New Delhi, 10-13 June, 2005. Agenda Item 6.0., CMS/CAF/5, 17 March 2005.
105. Waldenstrom, J., S.L. On, R. Ottvall, D. Hasselquist and B. Olsen, 2007. Species diversity of campylobacteria in a wild bird community in Sweden. J. Appl. Microbiol., 102: 424-432.
106. Weber, T.P. and N.I. Stilianakis, 2007. Ecologic immunology of avian influenza (H5N1) in migratory birds. Emerg. Infect. Dis., 13: 1139-1143.
107. Weimerskirch, H., F. Bonadonna, F. Bailleul, G. Mabille, G. Dell'Omo and H.P. Lipp, 2002. GPS tracking of foraging albatrosses. Sci., 295: 1259.
108. Wikelski, M., R.W. Kays, N.J. Kasdin, K. Thorup, J.A. Smith and G.W. Jr. Swenson, 2007. Going wild: what a global small-animal tracking system could do for experimental biologists. J. Exp. Biol., 210: 181-186.
109. Winkel, G., 1997. Biosecurity in poultry production. Acta Vet. Hung., 45: 361-372.
110. Wobeser, G., 1987. Experimental duck plague in blue-winged teal and Canada geese. J. Wildlife Dis., 23: 368-375.
111. Wobeser, G.A., 1997. Avian cholera, In: Diseases of wild waterfowl. 2nd Edn., New York, Plenum Press, pp: 57-69.
112. Youling, J., 2005. Highly pathogenic avian influenza in China (People's Rep. of China)-Follow up report No.2. Office International des Epizooties, Disease Inform., No. 32.
113. Zanetti, F., A. Berinstein, A. Pereda, O. Taboga and E. Carrillo, 2005. Molecular characterization and phylogenetic analysis of Newcastle disease virus isolates from healthy wild birds. Avian Dis., 49: 546-550.
114. Zepeda, C., 2007. Highly pathogenic avian influenza in domestic poultry and wild birds: A risk analysis framework. J. Wildlife Dis., 43: 51-54.
115. Zhou, J.Y., H.G. Shen, H.X. Chen, G.Z. Tong, M. Liao, H.C. Yang and J.X. Liu, 2006. Characterization of highly pathogenic H5N1 influenza virus derived from bar-headed geese in China. J. Gen. Virol., 87: 1823-1833.
116. Ziedler, K. and A. Hlinak, 1992. The occurrence of virus enteritis (duck plague) in wild birds Berl. Munch. Tierar. Wochenschr., 105: 122-125.