Religious nationalism and the making of the modern Japanese state

Theory and Society

Volumn 37, Issue 4, 2008, Pages 343-374

  Fukase Indergaard, Fumiko ^a   Indergaard, Michael ^b  

^a Columbia University ^*  (United States)

^b ST JOHN'S UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 45849116520     PISSN: 03042421     EISSN: 15737853     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s11186-007-9055-8     Document Type: Review

References (223)

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3. Robert Bellah. Tokugawa Religion: The Cultural Roots of Modern Japan (New York and London: Free Press, 1985).
4. See Masao Maruyama, Nihon no shisô, Tokyo: Iwanami shoten, 1961;
5. Osamu Kuno and Jirô Kamishima (Eds.), "Tennôsei" ronshû. 2 Volumes, Tokyo: San ichi shobô,1974-76.
6. Carol Gluck, Japan's Modern Myths: Ideology in the Late Meiji Period (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1985), 12-16.
7. Eiko Ikegami, "Citizenship and National Identity in Early Meiji Japan, 1868-1889," in International Review of Social History 40, supplement 3, 1995, pp. 185-221.
8. Liah Greenfeld argues that all forms of nationalism are secular, products of a diffusion process tracing back to England, circa 1600. See, The Spirit of Capitalism (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2001).
9. Johann P. Arnason, "Nations and Nationalisms: Between General Theory and Comparative History." In G. Delanty and K. Kumar (Eds.) The Sage Handbook of Nations and Nationalism, pp.44-56. (London: Sage, 2006).
10. A. Ong. Flexible Citizenship: The Cultural Logics of Transnationality (Durham and London: Duke University Press, 1999), 31.
11. R. Bin Wong. China Transformed: Historical Change and the Limits of European Experience (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1997), 281.
12. Wong, China Transformed, 282.
13. See, Lyn Spillman and Russell Faeges, "Nations." In Julia Adams, Elisabeth S. Clemens, and Ann Shola Orloff (Eds.) Remaking Modernity (Durham and London: Duke University Press, 2005)
14. Philip S. Gorski, "Calvinsim and State-Formation in Early Modern Europe," In George Steinmetz (Ed.) State/Culture: State Formation After the Cultural Turn (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1999);
15. "The Mosaic Moment: An Early Modernist Critique of Modernist Theories of Nationalism," American Journal of Sociology, 105(2000);
16. and The Disciplinary Revolution: Calvinism and the Rise of the State in Early Modern Europe (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2003).
17. Otto Hintze. Edited by Felix Gilbert. The Historical Essays of Otto Hintze (New York: Oxford University Press, 1975);
18. Charles Tilly (Ed.), The Formation of National States in Western Europe (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1975);
19. Charles Tilly, "War Making and State Making as Organized Crime." In Bringing the State Back In Dietrich Rueschemeyer and Theda Skocpol (Eds.) (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985);
20. Charles Tilly, Coercion, Capital, and European States, AD 990-1992 (Oxford: Blackwell, 1990);
21. Brian M. Downing, The Military Revolution and Political Change: Origins of Democracy and Autocracy in Early Modern Europe (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992).
22. Tilly, The Formation of National States in Western Europe, 633.
23. For example, Immanuel Wallerstein, The Modern World-System. Vol 1, Capitalist Agriculture and the Origins of the European World-Economy in the Sixteenth Century (New York: Academic Press, 1974);
24. Perry Anderson, Lineages of the Absolutist State (London: Verso, 1974).
25. George Steinmetz (Ed.), State/Culture: State-Formation after the Cultural Turn (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1999), 22.
26. Also see Philip S. Gorski, "Beyond Marx and Hintze? Third-Wave Theories of Early Modern State Formation," Society for Comparative Study of Society and History 1 (2001), 851-861.
27. Hobsbawn argues that traits of modern nations thought to be "rooted in the remotest antiquity" were "invented traditions" - either modified or created by the state for its own purposes during the course of state formation. Eric Hobsbawn, "Introduction: Inventing Traditions," In Eric Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger (Eds.), The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983) 14.
28. Similarly, Anderson deems the modern nation to be "an imagined political community"; he stresses the state's role in orchestrating this imagining (the official national model). Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities (London and New York: Verso, 1983) 97.
29. For example, Tilly states that "the same processes...which yielded direct rule and citizenship" also provided rulers with "opportunities to impose their favored version of national culture on their citizens." Charles Tilly, "Epilogue: Now Where?" in Steinmetz, State/Culture, 417.
30. Tilly, "Epilogue: Now Where?" 418.
31. Michael Mann. The Sources of Social Power. Vol. 1, A History of Power from the Beginning to A.D. 1760 and Vol. 2, The Rise of Classes and Nation-States, 1760-1914 (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1986, 1993).
32. Charles Tilly, "Trust and Rule," Theory and Society, 33 (2004) 5.
33. Gorski, "Calvinism and State-Formation in Early Modern Europe," 174.
34. See, for example, John Breuilly. Nationalism and the State (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982);
35. Eric Hobsbawn. Nations and Nationalism Since 1780. Second Edition. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990);
36. Krishan Kumar. The Making of English National Identity (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003).
37. The debate about the timing of nationalism stems from different definitions of what it entails. See, Anthony D. Smith. "Ethnicity and Nationalism," In G. Delanty and K. Kumar (Eds.) The Sage Handbook of Nations and Nationalism, 169-181.
38. Gorski proposes that as a material force, nationalism varies in "intensity" (from social movement to organized party to regime) and in "scope," which grows as participation extends from intellectuals and elites to middle-level segments and common people. "The Mosaic Moment," p.1459. Thus, Gorski sees some forms of nationalism as predating the modern era.
39. Philip Gorski, "Pre-Modern Nationalism: An Oxymoron? The Evidence from England," In G. Delanty and K. Kumar (Eds.) The Sage Handbook of Nations and Nationalism, 143-156.
40. Richard Helgerson. Forms of Nationhood: The Elizabethan Writing of England (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992).
41. G. Newman. The Rise of English Nationalism: A Cultural History, 1740-1830 (New York: St. Martin's, 1987).
42. Linda Colley. Britons: Forging the Nation 1707-1837 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1992).
43. Steven Pincus. Protestantism and Patriotism: Ideologies and the Making of English Foreign Policy, 1650-1688 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996).
44. Gorski, "The Mosaic Moment."
45. Gorski, The Disciplinary Revolution, 29.
46. Gorski, The Disciplinary Revolution, 22.
47. Gorski, The Disciplinary Revolution, xvi.
48. Gorski, The Disciplinary Revolution, 34. Gorski proposes that the "ideal" interests of a Calvinist king came into play in the Prussian case. Researchers on state formation in Europe disagree on whether political actors were mainly motivated by ideal interests, instrumental interests or some combination of both. The debate about Europe is beyond the scope of this study.
49. Gorski, The Disciplinary Revolution, 169-170. He notes the role of Confusianism in the, "...genesis of the Chinese bureaucracy and the imitation or imposition of the Chinese model within other parts of the region (for example, Japan and Korea). In Asia, as in Europe, then, the genesis and diffusion of the bureaucratic ethos can be traced back to particular religious reform movements and followed the course of their diffusion."
50. See, for example, John W. Meyer, John Boli, George M. Thomas, and Francisco O. Ramierez, "World Society and the Nation-State," American Journal of Sociology 103 (1997): 144-181.
51. David Strang and John Meyer, "Institutional Conditions for Diffusion," Theory and Society 22 (1993) 487-511.
52. D. Eleanor Westney, Imitation and Innovation: The Transfer of Western Organizational Patterns to Meiji Japan (Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 1987).
53. Ikegami, "Citizenship and National Identity in Early Meiji Japan, 1868-1889," 187.
54. See, for example, Tilly, "Epilogue: Now Where?"; Campbell, Richard M. Locke and Kathleen Thelen, "Apples and Oranges Revisited: Contextualized Comparisons and the Study of Comparative Labor Politics, Politics and Society 23 (1995):337-367;
55. Yasermin Sysol, Limits of Citizenship, Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1994;
56. Margaret E. Keck and Kathryn Sikkink, Activists Beyond Borders (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1998).
57. Wong, China Transformed, 283.
58. John L. Campbell and Ove K.Pedersen, "Conclusion: The Second Movement in Institutional Analysis," In Campbell and Pedersen (Eds.) The Rise of Neoliberalism and Institutional Analyses (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2001) 257-258.
59. Marc Schneiberg and Elizabeth S. Clemens. "The Typical Tools for the Job: Research Strategies in Institutional Analysis," Sociological Theory 23 (2006)195.
60. See John L. Campbell. "Where Do We Stand? Common Mechanisms in Organizations and Social Movements Research," In Gerald F. Davis, Doug McAdam, W. Richard Scott, and Mayer N. Zald (Eds), Social Movements and Organizational Theory (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005);
61. Peter Kjaer and O.Pedersen,"Translating Neoliberalism," In John L. Campbell and Ove Pedersen (Eds.) The Rise of Neoliberalism and Institutional Analysis, 219.
62. See, David Bloor, Knowledge and Social Imagery (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991);
63. Michel Callon, "Some Elements of a Sociology of Translation: Domestification of the Scallops and Fishermen of St. Brieuc Bay," In John Law (Ed.) Power, Action, Belief (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1986) 197-233;
64. Michel Callon, "Techno-economic Networks and Irreversibility," In John Law (Ed.) A Sociology of Monsters: Essays on Power, Technology and Domination (New York: Routledge, 1991) 132-164;
65. Bruno Latour, "The Powers of Association," In John Law (Ed.) Power, Action, and Belief (Boston: Routledge, 1986) 265-280;
66. Bruno Latour, Science in Action: How to Follow Scientists and Engineers Through Society (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1987);
67. Bruno Latour, "The Prince for Machines as Well as Machinations," In B. Elliot (Ed.) Technology and Social Process (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1988) 103-131.
68. Wong, China Transformed, 277-278.
69. Bellah, Tokugawa Religion, 87.
70. Shigeyoshi Murakami, Nihon no shûkyô, Tokyo: Iwanami shoten, 1981.
71. Bellah, Tokugawa Religion;
72. Murakami, Nihon no shûkyô.
73. Eiko Ikegami, The Taming of the Samurai: Honorific Individualism and the Making of Modern Japan. Cambridge and London: Harvard University Press, 1995, pp. 48-9.
74. Ikegami, The Taming of the Samurai, 186-88.
75. Ikegami, The Taming of the Samurai, Ibid., 188.
76. Ikegami, The Taming of the Samurai, Ibid., 189.
77. Ikegami, The Taming of the Samurai, Ibid., 189.
78. Ikegami, The Taming of the Samurai, Ibid., 189.
79. Ikegami, The Taming of the Samurai, Ibid., 306.
80. Helen Hardacre. Shintô and the State, 1868-1988 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1991),18.
81. Helen Hardacre. Shintô and the State, 1868-1988 1991),Ibid., 18.
82. Gorski, The Disciplinary Revolution.
83. Ikegami, "Citizenship and National Identity in Early Meiji Japan, 1868-1889."
84. Bellah, Tokugawa Religion, 41.
85. Hardacre, Shintô and the State, 1868-1988, 14.
86. H.D. Harootunian, "Late Tokugawa Culture and Thought," in The Emergence of Meiji Japan, Marius B. Jansen (Ed.), (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1995).
87. Harootunian, "Late Tokugawa Culture and Thought," 74.
88. Harootunian, "Late Tokugawa Culture and Thought," Ibid., 67.
89. Marius B. Jansen. The Making of Modern Japan (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2000) 206.
90. Harootunian, "Late Tokugawa Culture and Thought."
91. Gorski, The Disciplinary Revolution, 163.
92. Ikegami, "Citizenship and National Identity in early Meiji Japan, 1868-1889";
93. Jansen, The Making of Modern Japan, 2000.
94. Ikegami, "Citizenship and National Identity in Early Meiji Japan, 1868-1889, 204.
95. Ikegami, "Citizenship and National Identity in Early Meiji Japan, 1868-1889, Ibid., 196.
96. Hardacre, Shintô and the State, 1868-1988, 114;
97. Jansen, The Making of Modern Japan, 463.
98. For example, students in the Kumamoto area climbed a mountain to sign a declaration of Christian faith declaring that they "have been awakened and developed a desire to enlighten people in the emperor's state through Christianity." See Toshirô Suzuki, "Nihon ni okeru shoki Purotesutanto" in Nihon Purotesutanto shi kenkyûkai (Ed.), Nihon Purotesutanto shi no shomondai (Tokyo: Yûsankaku, 1983) 47.
99. Similarly, Kanzô Uchimura - the most important Protestant thinker in Japan - wrote in his diary, "the land which gave me birth requires from every one of its youth some unstinted contributions to its honor and glory." See Taijirô Yamamoto and Yôichi Mutô, The Complete Works of Kanzô Uchimura, Vol 1, How I Became a Christian: Out of My Diary (Tokyo: Kyôbunkan, 1971), 102.
100. Hardacre, Shintô and the State, 1868-1988, 3.
101. Hardacre, Shintô and the State, 1868-1988, Ibid., 113.
102. Jansen, The Making of Modern Japan, 352.
103. Hardacre, Shintô and the State, 1868-1988, 17.
104. Hardacre, Shintô and the State, 1868-1988, Ibid., 18.
105. Hardacre, Shintô and the State, 1868-1988, Ibid., 102-103.
106. Jansen, The Making of Modern Japan, 354.
107. Regarding the linking up of emperors and shrines, see Shigeyoshi Murakami, Tennô no saiki, Tokyo: Iwanami shten, 1977, 45;
108. and Shigeyoshi Murakami and Masao Takahashi, "Kyôha shintô, Kirisutokyô," in Nihon rekishi 15: Kindai 2, Tokyo, Iwanami shoten, 1962, 302-303.
109. Regarding the inventing of imperial rites see, Murakami, Tennô no saiki, 47-56; 68-106.
110. Hardacre, Shinto and the State, 1868-1988, 29.
111. The core theme for reorganizing state institutions in 1869 (kansei no kaikaku) was to align them with a model derived from the ancient state system. See Murakami, Tennô no saiki, 56.
112. Jansen, The Making of Modern Japan, 353.
113. Jansen, The Making of Modern Japan, Ibid..
114. Regarding the Iwakura Mission, see Akira Tanaka. Iwakura Shisetsudan: Beikoku kairan jikki (Tokyo: Iwanami shoten, 1994).
115. For a discussion of the kinds of objections and demands that were raised in different Western countries that the Iwakura mission visited, see Akio Yasuoka, "Iwakura shisetsu to shûkyô mondai" in Kindai Nihon no keisei to shûkyô mondai. ed. Chûô Daigaku jinbun kagaku kenkyûjo (Tokyo: Chûô Daigaku shuppanbu, 1992), 278-292.
116. Hardacre, Shintô and the State, 1868-1988, 30-31.
117. Ikegami, "Citizenship and National Identity in Early Meiji Japan, 1868-1889."
118. See Toshiaki Ôkubo, "Bunmei Kaika" in Nihon rekishi: Kindai 2 (Tokyo: Iwanami shoten, 1962) 257;
119. Yasushi Kuyama (Ed.) Kindai Nihon to Kirisutokyô: Meiji hen, Tokyo: Sôbunsha, 1956, 33;
120. Akira Tanaka, Nihon no rekishi 24: Meiji ishin (Tokyo: Shôgakukan, 1976) 308.
121. Hideo Nagai. Meiji kokka keiseiki no gaisei to naisei (Sapporo: Hokkaidô Daigaku tosho kankôkai, 1990) 9;
122. Ôkubo, "Bunmei kaika," 257.
123. See Tanaka, Nihon no rekishi 24: Meiji ishin 308;
124. Ôkubo, "Bunmei kaika," 260-262;
125. Kuyama ed. Kindai nihon to Kirisutokyô, 33.
126. Ôkubo, "Bunmei kaika," 265;
127. "Oyatoi gaikokujin ichiran" in Meiji bunka zenshû: Gaikoku bunka hen.
128. Ôkubo, "Bunmei kaika," 271.
129. See Mutsuro Sugiyama, "Bôsha no mita shoki kyôkai keisei katei" in Nihon ni okeru Kirisutokyô to shakai mondai. ed. Dôshisha Daigaku jinbun kagaku kenkyûjo (Tokyo: Misuzu shobô, 1963), 202-203; 214; 216.
130. See Thomas T. Winburn, Protestant Beginnings in Japan: The First Three Decades 1859-1889 (Tokyo: Charles E. Tuttle Company, 1959) 161-162;
131. and Yasuoka, "Iwakura shisetsu to shûkyô mondai," 1992, 292-293.
132. Hardacre, Shintô and the State, 1868-1988.
133. Jansen, The Making of Modern Japan, 354.
134. Murakami and Takahashi, "Kyoha shintô, Kirisutokyô, " 303-304;
135. Shigeyoshi Murakami, Kokka shintô, Tokyo, Iwanami shoten, 1970, 106-109;
136. Murakami. Tennô no saiki, 62-65.
137. Hardacre, Shintô and the State, 1868-1988, 43.
138. Jansen, The Making of Modern Japan, 354.
139. Hardacre, Shintô and the State, 1868-1988, 59.
140. Hardacre, Shintô and the State, 1868-1988, Ibid., 102;
141. Murakami, Tennô no saiki,125-7.
142. Hardacre, Shintô and the State, 1868-1988, 101.
143. Murakami, Kokka shintô, 184-187.
144. Hardacre, Shintô and the State, 1868-1988, 32.
145. Hardacre, Shintô and the State, 1868-1988, Ibid., 102.
146. Regarding various problems, see Hardacre, Shintô and the State, 1868-1988, 44-45;
147. Murakami, Tennô no saiki, 64.
148. Ôkubo, "Bunmei kaika," 270;
149. Stephen Vlastos, "Opposition Movements in Early Meiji, 1868-1885" in The Emergence of Meiji Japan. ed. Marius Jansen, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995, 247.
150. Vlastos, "Opposition Movements in Early Meiji, 1868-1885," 238-241;
151. Hideo Nagai, Nihon no rekishi 25: jiyû minken, Tokyo: Shôgakukan, 1976, 31-32.
152. See Tanaka. Nihon no rekishi 24: Meiji ishin, 1981, 312-14;
153. San'nosuke Matsumoto (Ed.), Kindai Nihon shisô taikei 30: Meiji shisô shû 1, Tokyo: Chikuma shobô, 1976, 469-475;
154. Ôkubo, "Bunmei kaika," 270-271;
155. Nagai, Nihon no rekishi 25: jiyû minken, 28-29, 51-53, 85-89;
156. and Vlastos, "Opposition Movements in Early Meiji, 1868-1885," 246.
157. The state refused to accept the petitions. Nagai, Nihon no rekishi 25, 94-98, 102-103;
158. Vlastos, "Opposition Movements in Early Meiji, 1868-1885," 242, 247.
159. Nagai, Nihon no rekishi 25: Jiyû minken, 98-102, 158-165;
160. Vlastos, "Opposition Movements in Early Meiji, 1868-1885," 247-248;
161. Akira Tanaka, Shôkoku Shugi: Nihon no kindai wo yomi naosu, Tokyo: Iwanami shoten, 1999, 57-59.
162. Within the government, only Shigenou Ôkuma had advocated the early establishment of an English-style parliament, cabinet, and constitution. See Tanaka, Shôkoku Shugi, 57-59;
163. Nagai, Nihon no rekishi 25: jiyu minken, 32-38, 158-165.
164. Ôkubo, "Bunmei kaika," 282-284;
165. Kiyoko Takeda, "Tennôsei shisô no keisei" in Nihon rekishi 16: kindai 3, Tokyo: Iwanami shoten, 1962, 297-301.
166. Nagai, Meiji kokka keiseiki no gaisei to naisei, 180-185;
167. Winburn, Protestant Beginnings in Japan, 57;
168. Daikichi Irokawa, Nihon no rekishi 21: kindai kokka no shuppatsu, Tokyo: Chûô koron sha, 1966, 390-7, 453-454;
169. Kuyama, Kindai Nihon to Kirisutokyô: Meiji hen, 128-32;
170. Nagai, Nihon no rekishi 25: jiyû minken, 270-272, 299-307, 323-324.
171. Nagai, Nihon no rekishi 25: jiyû minken, 270-272, Ibid.
172. Gluck, Japan's Modern Myths;
173. Ikegami, "Citizenship and National Identity in Early Meiji Japan, 1868-1889."
174. Ikegami, "Citizenship and National Identity in Early Meiji Japan, 1868-1889," 210.
175. Hardacre, Shintô and the State, 117.
176. Tanaka, Shôkoku shugi: Nihon no kindai wo yomi naosu, 57-60;
177. Vlastos, "Opposition Movements in Early Meiji, 1868-1885," 249, 261.
178. Ikegami, "Citizenship and National Identity in Early Meiji Japan, 1868-1889, 213.
179. Hardacre, Shintô and the State, 116-119.
180. Hardacre, Shintô and the State, Ibid., 118.
181. Hardacre, Shintô and the State, Ibid., 116.
182. Hardacre, Shintô and the State, 116.Ibid.
183. Ikegami, "Citizenship and National Identity in Early Meiji Japan, 1868-1889," 213-214.
184. Ikegami, "Citizenship and National Identity in Early Meiji Japan, 1868-1889," Ibid., 215.
185. Charles Iglehart, A Century of Protestant Christianity in Japan (Rutland and Tokyo: Charles E. Tuttle, 1959), 98.
186. Ikegami, "Citizenship and National Identity in Early Meiji Japan, 1868-1889," 216.
187. Ikegami, "Citizenship and National Identity in Early Meiji Japan, 1868-1889," Ibid., 216.
188. Gluck, Japan's Modern Myths.
189. Hardacre, Shintô and the State, 103.
190. Hardacre, Shintô and the State, Ibid., 122.
191. Hardacre, Shintô and the State, Ibid., 122.
192. Hardacre, Shintô and the State, Ibid., 108.
193. Hardacre, Shintô and the State, Ibid., 108-109.
194. Hardacre, Shintô and the State, Ibid., 121-123.
195. Hardacre, Shintô and the State, Ibid., 121.
196. Hardacre, Shintô and the State, Ibid., 123.
197. Norihisa Suzuki, Uchimura Kanzô Nichiroku, vol.3, 1888-1891: Ichikô fukei jiken, ge, Tokyo: Kyôbunkan, 1993, 98-138;
198. Suzuki (Ed.), Uchimura Kanzô Zenshû, vol. 2, 1980, 481.
199. Yasushi Kuyama (Ed.), Kindai nihon to kirisutokyo: Meiji hen (Tokyo: Sobunsha, 1956), 200-205.
200. Regarding similar incidents in which Christians were accused of being "disloyal subjects," see Akira Ebisawa, Nihon Kirisutokyô hyakunen shi (Tokyo: Nihon Kirisuto kyôdan shuppan kyoku, 1959), 143.
201. See Naozô Ueno and et al. (Eds.), Dôshisha hyakunen shi: Tsûshi hen 1 (Kyoto: Dôshisha, 1979) 457-458; 461;
202. Tomohiro Saeki, "Shukyô hôan no kyôiku shi teki igi ni tsuite" in Kindai Nihon shakai to Kirisutokyô, (Ed.), Sugii Rokurô sensei taishoku kinen jigyô kai (Kyoto, Dôhosha shuppan, 1989), 206-207;
203. Masao Takahashi, "Meiji sanjûninen kaisei jyôyaku jisshi to Kirisuto kyôkai" in Kindai Nihon no keisei to shukyô mondai (Tokyo: Chûô Daigaku shuppanbu, 1992) 305-313;
204. Aoyama Gakuin, Aoyama Gakuin kyujyûnen shi (Tokyo: Aoyama Gakuin, 1965) 288-289, 297-299;
205. Shin'ichirô Kanei et al. (Eds.), Meiji Gakuin hyakunen shi (Tokyo: Meiji Gakuin, 1975), 209-212.
206. Akira Irie, "Japan's Drive to Great-Power Status" in The Emergence of Meiji Japan, (Ed.) Marius B. Jansen (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 296.
207. Hardacre, Shintô and the State, 24.
208. Hardacre, Shintô and the State, Ibid., 161.
209. Hardacre, Shintô and the State, Ibid., 112.
210. Hardacre, Shintô and the State, Ibid., 101.
211. Hardacre, Shintô and the State, Ibid., 7.
212. Hardacre, Shintô and the State, Ibid., 4.
213. Hardacre, Shintô and the State, Ibid., 98.
214. See Akira Ebisawa, Nihon Kirisutokyô hyakunen shi (Tokyo: Nihon Kirisuto kyôdan shuppankyoku, 1968), 187-189;
215. exceptions were Kanzô Uchimura and Masahisa Uemura, who criticized the conference. See Kuyama, Kindai Nihon to Kirisutokyô: Meiji hen, 336-337.
216. Shizuo Ono, Nihon Purotesutanto Kyôkaishi, jo: Meiji- Taishô hen (Tokyo: Seikei jyusanjo shuppanbu, 1986), 230-232;
217. Kuyama, Kindai Nihon to Kirisutokyô, 337.
218. Mungil Kim, Kindai Nihon Kirisutokyô to Chôsen (Tokyo, Akaishi shoten, 1998), 128-131, 152-176.
219. John Meyer says of states, "They are enactors of multiple dramas whose texts are written elsewhere." "The Changing Cultural Context of the Nation-State," In George Steinmetz (Ed.) State/Culture, 136.
220. Meyer, "The Changing Cultural Context of the Nation-State," 125.
221. Liah Greenfeld and Jonathan Eastwood, "Nationalism in Comparative Perspective," In Thomas Janoski, Robert Alford, Alexander Hicks, and Mildred Schwartz (Eds.), The Handbook of Political Sociology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 251.
222. Ikegami, "Citizenship and National Identity in Early Meiji Japan, 1868-1889."
223. Gorski, "Pre-Modern Nationalism: An Oxymoron? The Evidence from England;" "The Mosaic Moment."