Exchanges across land-water-scape boundaries in urban systems: Strategies for reducing nitrate pollution

Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences

Volumn 1134, Issue , 2008, Pages 213-232

  Cadenasso, M L ^a,l   Pickett, S T A ^b   Groffman, P M ^b   Band, L E ^c   Brush, G S ^d   Galvin, M F ^e   Grove, J M ^f   Hagar, G ^g   Marshall, V ^h   McGrath, B P ⁱ   O'Neil Dunne, J P M ^j   Stack, W P ^k   Troy, A R ^j  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^b CARY INSTITUTE OF ECOSYSTEM STUDIES   (United States)

^c The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill   (United States)

^d Johns Hopkins University   (United States)

^e MARYLAND DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES   (United States)

^f USDA FOREST SERVICE   (United States)

^g Parks and People Foundation   (United States)

^h Columbia University ^*  (United States)

ⁱ NEW SCHOOL FOR SOCIAL RESEARCH   (United States)

^j UNIVERSITY OF VERMONT   (United States)

^k Baltimore Department of Public Works   (United States)

^l PES 1210 ^*  (United States)

more..

Author keywords

Baltimore, Maryland; Boundaries; Cities; Land cover; Nitrate; Nonpoint source; Pollution; Restoration; Riparian; Urban; Urban design; Water; Watershed

Indexed keywords

NITRATE; STORM WATER;

BOUNDARY LAYER; CANOPY; COASTAL WATERS; CONSERVATION BIOLOGY; FEEDBACK SYSTEM; GOVERNMENT REGULATION; HYDROLOGY; LAND DRAINAGE; LAND USE; LANDSCAPE; REVIEW; RIPARIAN ECOSYSTEM; STREAM (RIVER); TERRESTRIAL SURFACE WATERS; UNITED STATES; URBAN AREA; WATER POLLUTION; WATERSHED; WETLAND;

EID: 45449116558     PISSN: 00778923     EISSN: 17496632     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1196/annals.1439.012     Document Type: Review

References (121)

1. Alberti, M., J.M. Marzluff, E. Shulenberger, et al. 2003. Integrating humans into ecology: opportunities and challenges for studying urban ecosystems. BioScience 53: 1169 1179.
2. Anderson, J.R., E.E. Hardy, J.T. Roach & R.E. Witmer. 1976. Land use and land cover classification systems for use with remote sensor data (USGS Professional Paper No. 964): US Geological Survey.
3. Arnold, C.L. & J.C. Gibbons. 1996. Impervious surface coverage: the emergence of a key environmental indicator. J. Am. Plann. Assoc. 62: 243 258.
4. Atasoy, M., R.B. Palmquist & D.J. Phaneuf. 2006. Estimating the effects of urban residential development on water quality using microdata. J. Environ. Manage. 79: 399 408.
5. Baker, L.A., P.M. Hartzheim, S.E. Hobbie, et al. 2007. Effect of consumption choices on fluxes of carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus through households. Urban Ecosyst. 10: 97 117.
6. Baltimore City, Office of the Mayor. 2006. Mayor O'Malley announces international award recognizing Baltimore's urban tree canopy goal. Press Release, October 19 (http://www.ci.baltimore.md.us/news/press/061019.html).
7. Baltimore County. 2000. Master plan 2010. Baltimore County Council. Towson, MD. http://www.baltimorecountymd.gov/Agencies/planning/masterplanning/.
8. Baltimore County Department of Environmental Protection and Resource Management. 2007. Forests and trees. Towson, MD. http://www.baltimorecountymd. gov/Agencies/environment/forestsandtrees/index.html.
9. Baltimore County Office of Planning. 2006. Smart growth. Baltimore County. Towson, MD. http://www.baltimorecountymd.gov/Agencies/planning/ masterplanning/smartgrowth.html.
10. Band, L.E., M.L. Cadenasso, C.S.B. Grimmond, et al. 2005. Heterogeneity in urban ecosystems: patterns and process. In Ecosystem function in heterogeneous landscapes. G. Lovett, C.G. Jones, M.G. Turner & K.C. Weathers, Eds 257 278. Springer-Verlag. New York.
11. Bernhardt, E.S., L.E. Band, C.J. Walsh & P.E. Berke. 2008. Understanding, managing, and minimizing urban impacts on surface water nitrogen loading. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. The Year in Ecology and Conservation Biology. In Press.
12. Bernhardt, E.S. & M.A. Palmer. 2007. Restoring streams in an urbanizing world. Freshw. Biol. 52: 738 751.
13. Bernhardt, E.S., M.A. Palmer, J.D. Allan, et al. 2005. Ecology-synthesizing U.S. river restoration efforts. Science 308: 636 637.
14. Boesch, D.F., R.B. Brinsfield & R.E. Magnien. 2001. Chesapeake Bay eutrophication: scientific understanding, ecosystem restoration, and challenges for agriculture. J. Environ. Qual. 30: 303 320.
15. Bormann, F.H. & G.E. Likens 1994. Patterns and Processes in a Forested Ecosystem. Springer-Verlag. New York.
16. Brush, G.S. in prep. Urban riparian vegetation - defining the hydrological drought.
17. Brush, G.S. & D. Bain. in prep. Historical land use and forest succession.
18. Brush, G.S., C. Lenk & J. Smith. 1980. The natural forests of Maryland: an explanation of the vegetation map of Maryland. Ecol. Monogr. 50: 77 92.
19. Bukaveckas, P.A. 2007. Effects of channel restoration on water velocity, transient storage, and nutrient uptake in a channelized stream. Environ. Sci. Technol. 41: 1570 1576.
20. Cadenasso, M.L., S.T.A. Pickett & J.M. Grove. 2006. Dimensions of ecosystem complexity: heterogeneity, connectivity, and history. Ecol. Complexity 3: 1 12.
21. Cadenasso, M.L., S.T.A. Pickett & K. Schwarz. 2007. Spatial heterogeneity in urban ecosystems: reconceptualizing land cover and a framework for classification. Front. Ecol. Environ. 5: 80 88.
22. Cadenasso, M.L., S.T.A. Pickett, K.C. Weathers & C.G. Jones. 2003. A framework for a theory of ecological boundaries. BioScience 53: 750 758.
23. Carpenter, S.R., N.F. Caraco, D.L. Correll, et al. 1998. Nonpoint pollution of surface waters with phosphorus and nitrogen. Ecol. Appl. 8: 559 568.
24. Chen, J., J.F. Franklin & T.A. Spies. 1995. Growing-season microclimatic gradients from clearcut edges into old-growth douglas-fir forests. Ecol. Appl. 5: 74 86.
25. Chesapeake Bay Commission. 2006. Focal points: annual report 2006. Chesapeake Bay Commission. Annapolis, pp. 42. http://www.chesbay.state.va.us/ Publications/CBC-AR-2006.pdf.
26. Chesapeake Bay Foundation. 2003. Sewage Treatment Plants: the Chesapeake Bay Watershed's Second Largest Source of Water Pollution. Baltimore, MD.
27. Chesapeake Bay Program. 2000. Chesapeake 2000. Chesapeake Bay Program. Annapolis, MD. http://www.chesapeakebay.net/pubs/chesapeake2000agreement.pdf.
28. Clay, G. 1973. Close Up: How to Read the American City. Praeger Publishers. New York.
29. Craig, L.S., M.A. Palmer, D.C. Richardson, et al. 2008. Stream restoration strategies for reducing nitrogen loads. Front. Ecol. Environ. In Press.
30. Diaz, R.J. 2001. Overview of hypoxia around the world. J. Environ. Qual. 30: 275 281.
31. Dietz, M.E., J.C. Clausen & K.K. Filchak. 2004. Education and changes in residential nonpoint source pollution. Environ. Manage. 34: 690.
32. DiGregorio, A. & L.J.M. Jansen. 2001. Land Cover Classification System (LCCS). Classification Concepts and User Manual. Food and Agriculture Organization Cressa, R.T. Kneib, et al. 2001. Managing critical transition zones. Ecosystems 4: 452 460.
33. Farina, A. 1997. Principles and Methods in Landscape Ecology. Kluwer. New York.
34. Felson, A.J. & S.T.A. Pickett. 2005. Designed experiments: new approaches to studying urban ecosystems. Front. Ecol. Environ. 3: 549 556.
35. Forman, R.T.T., D. Sperling, J.A. Bissonette, et al. 2003. Road Ecology: Science and Solutions. Island Press. Washington, DC.
36. Galvin, M.F., J.M. Grove & J.P.M. O'Neil-Dunne. 2006. A Report on Baltimore City's Present and Potential Urban Tree Canopy. Maryland Department of Natural Resources, Forest Service. Annapolis, MD.
37. Gift, D., P.M. Groffman, S.S. Kaushal, et al. 2008. Root biomass, organic matter, and denitrification potential in degraded and restored urban riparian zones. Restoration Ecology In Press.
38. Goonetilleke, A., E. Thomas, S. Ginn & D. Gilbert. 2005. Understanding the role of land use in urban stormwater quality management. J. Environ. Manage. 74: 31 42.
39. Gottdiener, M. & R. Hutchison. 2000. The New Urban Sociology, 2nd edn. McGraw Hill. New York.
40. Grimm, N.B., L.J. Baker & D. Hope. 2003. An ecosystem approach to understanding cities: familiar foundations and uncharted frontiers. In Understanding Urban Ecosystems: A New Frontier for Science and Education. A.R. Berkowitz, C.H. Nilon & K.S. Holweg, Eds 95 114. Springer-Verlag. New York.
41. Groffman, P.M., D.J. Bain, L.E. Band, et al. 2003. Down by the riverside: urban riparian ecology. Front. Ecol. Environ. 1: 315 321.
42. Groffman, P.M., N.J. Boulware, W.C. Zipperer, et al. 2002. Soil nitrogen cycling processes in urban riparian zones. Environ. Sci. Technol. 36: 4547 4552.
43. Groffman, P.M. & M.K. Crawford. 2003. Denitrification potential in urban riparian zones. J. Environ. Qual. 32: 1144 1149.
44. Groffman, P.M., A.M. Dorsey & P.M. Mayer. 2005. Nitrogen processing within geomorphic features in urban streams. J. N. Am. Benthol. Soc. 24: 613 625.
45. Groffman, P.M., N.L. Law, K.T. Belt, et al. 2004. Nitrogen fluxes and retention in urban watershed ecosystems. Ecosystems 7: 393 403.
46. Grove, J.M., M.L. Cadenasso, W.R. Burch, Jr., et al. 2006. Data and methods comparing social structure and vegetation structure of urban neighborhoods in Baltimore, Maryland. Soc. Nat. Resour. 19: 117 136.
47. Hale, R. & P. Groffman. 2006. Chloride effects on nitrogen dynamics in forested and suburban stream debris dams. J. Environ. Qual. 35: 2425 2432.
48. Hassett, B.A., M. Palmer, E. Bernhardt, et al. 2005. Restoring watersheds project by project: trends in Chesapeake Bay tributary restoration. Front. Ecol. Environ. 3: 259 267.
49. Hathaway, J.M. & W.F. Hunt. 2006. Urban Waterways: Level Spreaders: Overview, Design, and Maintenance. North Carolina Cooperative Extension Service, AGW 588 09.
50. Hatt, B.E., T.D. Fletcher, C.J. Walsh & S.L. Taylor. 2004. The influence of urban density and drainage infrastructure on the concentrations and loads of pollutants in small streams. Environ. Manage. 34: 112 124.
51. Heisler, G.M. 1974. Trees and human comfort in urban areas. J. Forest. 72: 466 469.
52. Hogan, D.M. & M.R. Walbridge. 2007. Best management practices for nutrient and sediment retention in urban stormwater runoff. J. Environ. Qual. 36: 386 395.
53. Howarth, R.W. & R. Marino. 2006. Nitrogen as the limiting nutrient for eutrophication in coastal marine ecosystems: evolving views over three decades. Limnol. Oceanogr. 51: 364 376.
54. Hsieh, C.H. & Davis, A.P. 2005. Multiple-event study of bioretention for treatment of urban stormwater runoff. Water Sci. Technol. 51: 177 181.
55. Hunt, W.F., A.R. Jarrett, J.T. Smith & L.J. Sharkey. 2006. Evaluating bioretention hydrology and nutrient removal at three field sites in North Carolina. ASCE J. Irrig. Drain. Eng. 132: 600 608.
56. Hutchings, M.J., E.A. John & A.J.A. Stewart (Eds). 2000. The Ecological Consequences of Environmental Heterogeneity. Blackwell Science. Malden, MA.
57. Jacobs, J. 1961. The Death and Life of Great American Cities: The Failure of Town Planning. Random House. New York.
58. Johnson, S. 2006. The Ghost Map: The Story of London's Most Terrifying Epidemic - and How It Changed Science, Cities, and The Modern World. Riverhead Books. New York.
59. Jones, K.B., A.C. Neale, M.S. Nash, et al. 2001. Predicting nutrient and sediment loadings to streams from landscape metrics: a multiple watershed study from the United States Mid-Atlantic region. Landscape Ecol. 16: 301 312.
60. Jordan, T.E., D.L. Correll & D.E. Weller. 1997. Relating nutrient discharges from watersheds to land use and streamflow variability. Water Resour. Res. 33: 2579 2590.
61. Kaushal, S.S., P.M. Groffman, P.M. Mayer, et al. 2008. Effect of stream restoration on denitrification at the riparian-stream interface of an urbanizing watershed of the mid-Atlantic U.S. Ecological Applications In Press.
62. Kaye, J.P., P.M. Groffman, N.B. Grimm, et al. 2006. A distinct urban biogeochemistry? Trends Ecol. Evol. 21: 192 199.
63. Kolasa, J. & S.T.A. Pickett. 1991. Ecological Heterogeneity. Springer-Verlag. New York.
64. Koroncai, R., L. Linker, J. Sweeney & R. Batuik. 2003. Setting and Allocating the Chesapeake Bay Basin Nutrient and Sediment Loads: The Collaborative Process, Technical Tools, and Innovative Approaches. US Environmental Protection Agency. Annapolis, MD.
65. Kuo, F.E., M. Bacaicoa & W.C. Sullivan. 1998. Transforming inner-city landscapes: trees, sense of safety, and preferences. Environ. Behav. 30: 28 59.
66. Law, N.L., L.E. Band & J.M. Grove. 2004. Nitrogen input from residential lawn care practices in suburban watersheds in Baltimore County, Md. J. Environ. Plann. Manage. 47: 737 755.
67. Li, J., R. Orland & T. Hogenbirk. 1998. Environmental road and lot drainage designs: alternatives to the curb-gutter-sewer system. Can. J. Civil Eng. 25: 26 39.
68. Lovett, G.M., M.M. Traynor, R.V. Pouyat, et al. 2002. Atmospheric deposition to oak forests along an urban-rural gradient. Environ. Sci. Technol. 34: 4294 4300.
69. Lovett, G.M., C.G. Jones, M.G. Turner & K.C. Weathers (Eds.). 2005. Ecosystem Function in Heterogeneous Landscapes. Springer. New York.
70. Lowrance, R. 1998. Riparian forest ecosystems as filters for nonpoint-source pollution. In Successes, Limitations, and Frontiers in Ecosystem Science. M.L. Pace & P.M. Groffman, Eds 113 141. Springer. New York.
71. Mayer, P.M., S.K. Reynolds, M.D. McCutchen & T.J. Canfield. 2007. Meta-analysis of nitrogen removal in riparian buffers. J. Environ. Qual. 36: 1172 1180.
72. Mayer, P.M., E. Striz, R. Shedlock, et al. 2003. The Effects of Ecosystem Restoration on Nitrogen Processing in an Urban Mid-Atlantic Piedmont Stream. Paper presented at the First Interagency Conference on Research in the Watersheds. Benson, AZ.
73. Meyer, S.C. 2005. Analysis of base flow trends in urban streams, northeastern Illinois, USA. Hydrol. J. 13: 871 885.
74. McClain, M.E., E.W. Boyer, C.L. Dent, et al. 2003. Biogeochemical hot spots and hot moments at the interface of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. Ecosystems 6: 301 312.
75. McKinney, M.L. 2002. Urbanization, biodiversity, and conservation. BioScience 52: 883 891.
76. McPherson, E.G., D. Nowak, G. Heisler, et al. 1997. Quantifying urban forest sturcture, function, and value: the Chicago urban forest climate project. Urban Ecosyst. 1: 49 61.
77. Melosi, M.V. 2000. The Sanitary City: Urban Infrastructure in America from Colonial Times to the Present. Johns Hopkins University Press. Baltimore, MD.
78. Mentens, J., D. Raes & M. Hermy. 2006. Green roofs as a tool for solving the rainwater runoff problem in the urbanized 21st century? Landscape Urban Plann. 77: 217 226.
79. Miller, C.V., J.M. Denis, S.W. Ator & J.W. Brakebill. 1997. Nutrients in streams during baseflow in selected environmental settings of the Potomac River basin. J. Am. Water Resour. Assoc. 33: 1155 1171.
80. Naiman, R.J. & R.E. Bilby (Eds). 1998. River Ecology and Management: Lessons from the Pacific Coastal Ecoregion. Springer-Verlag. New York.
81. Naiman, R.J. & H. Décamps 1997. The ecology of interfaces: riparian zones. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 28: 621 658.
82. Naiman, R.J., H. Décamps & M.E. McClain. 2005. Riparia: Ecology, Conservation, and Management of Streamside Communities. Elsevier, Academic Press. Amsterdam.
83. Natural Resources Conservation Service. 2006. Chesapeake Bay and agriculture. United States Department of Agriculture. Washington, DC.
84. Nikolaidis, N.P., H. Heng, R. Semagin & J.C. Clausen. 1998. Non-linear response of a mixed land use watershed to nitrogen loading. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 67: 251 265.
85. Oberndorfer, E., J. Lundholm, B. Bass, et al. 2007. Green roofs as urban ecosystems: ecological structures, functions, and services. BioScience 57: 823 833.
86. Palmer, M., J.D. Allen, J. Meyer & E.S. Bernhardt. 2007. River restoration in the twenty-first century: data and experiential knowledge to inform future efforts. Restoration Ecol. 15: 472 481.
87. Paul, M.J. & J.L. Meyer. 2001. Riverine ecosystems in an urban landscape. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 32: 333 365.
88. Pauleit, S. & F. Duhme 2000. Assessing the environmental performance of land cover types for urban planning. Landscape Urban Plann. 52: 1 20.
89. Peterjohn, W.T. & D.L. Correll. 1984. Nutrient dynamics in an agricultural watershed: observations on the role of a riparian forest. Ecology 65: 1466 1475.
90. Pickett, S.T.A., K.T. Belt, M.F. Galvin, et al. 2007. Watersheds in Baltimore, Maryland: understanding and application of integrated ecological and social processes. J. Contemp. Water Res. Educ. 136: 44 55.
91. Pickett, S.T.A., W. Burch, Jr., S. Dalton, et al. 1997. A conceptual framework for the study of human ecosystems in urban areas. Urban Ecosyst. 1: 185 199.
92. Pickett, S.T.A. & M.L. Cadenasso 2008. Linking ecological and built components of urban mosaics: an open cycle of ecological design. J. Ecol. 96: 8 12.
93. Raciti, S., M.F. Galvin, J.M. Grove, et al. 2006. Urban Tree Canopy Goal Setting: A Guide for Chesapeake Bay Communities. United States Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern State & Private Forestry, Chesapeake Bay Program Office. Annapolis, MD.
94. Richardson, D.C. 2006, Sept. Watershed 263: a resource uncovered. Stormwater: The Journal for Surface Water Quality Professionals. Vol. 7. http://www.forester.net/sw_0609_watershed.html.
95. Ridd, M.K. 1995. Exploring a V-I-S (vegetation-impervious surface-soil) model for urban ecosystem analysis through remote sensing: comparative anatomy for cities. Int. J. Remote Sens. 16: 2165 2185.
96. Rose, S. & N.E. Peters. 2001. Effects of urbanization on streamflow in the Atlanta area (Georgia, USA): a comparative hydrological approach. Hydrol. Process. 15: 1441 1457.
97. Rosgen, D.L. 1994. A classification of natural rivers. Catena 22: 169 199.
98. Rosgen, D.L. 1996. Applied River Morphology. Wildland Hydrology. Pagosa Springs, CO.
99. Shane, D.G. 2005. Recombinant Urbanism: Conceptual Modeling in Architecture, Urban Design, and City Theory. John Wiley & Sons. Hoboken, NJ.
100. Shields, C.A., L.E. Band, P.M. Groffman, et al. 2008. Export timing of nitrogen from catchments along an urban-rural gradient in the Chesapeake Bay watershed. Water Resources Research In Press.
101. Sprague, E., D. Burke, S. Claggett & A. Todd 2006. The State of Chesapeake Forests. The Conservation Fund & USDA Forest Service, Northeastern Area, State and Private Forestry. Arlington, VA & Annapolis, MD.
102. Strayer, D.L., R.E. Beighley, L.C. Thompson, et al. 2003. Effects of land cover on stream ecosystems: roles of empirical models and scaling issues. Ecosystems 6: 407 423.
103. Sukopp H. 1998. Urban ecology - scientific and practical aspects. In Urban Ecology. J. Breuste, H. Feldmann & O. Uhlmann, Eds 3 16. Springer-Verlag. New York.
104. Sukopp, H. & S. Weiler 1988. Biotope mapping and nature conservation strategies in urban areas of the Federal Republic of Germany. Landscape Urban Plann. 15: 39 58.
105. Sukopp, H., S. Hejny & I. Kowarik (Eds). 1990. Urban Ecology: Plants and Plant Communities in Urban Environments. SPB Academic Publishing. The Hague.
106. Swank, W.T. & J.E. Douglass. 1977. Nutrient budgets for undisturbed and manipulated hardwood forest ecosystems in the mountains of North Carolina. In Watershed research in eastern North America. Vol. 1. D.L. Correll, Ed 343 364. Chesapeake Bay Center for Environmental Studies, Smithsonian Institute. Edgewater, MD.
107. Troy, A.R., J.M. Grove, J.P.M. O'Neil-Dunne, et al. 2007. Predicting opportunities for greening and patterns of vegetation on private urban lands. Environ. Manage. 40: 394 412.
108. United Nations Population Fund. 2007. State of World Population 2007: Unleashing the Potential of Urban Growth. United Nations Population Fund. New York.
109. USEPA (US Environmental Protection Agency). 1990. National pesticide survey: nitrate. Office of Water, Office of Pesticides and Toxic Substances. Washington, DC.
110. Valiela, I., G. Tomasky, J. Hauxwell, et al. 2000. Operationalizing sustainability: management and risk assessment of land-derived nitrogen loads to estuaries. Ecol. Appl. 10: 1006 1023.
111. Vitousek, P.M., J.D. Aber, R.W. Howarth, et al. 1997a. Human alteration of the global nitrogen cycle: sources and consequences. Ecol. Appl. 7: 737 750.
112. Vitousek, P.M., H.A. Mooney, J. Lubchenco & J.M. Melillo. 1997b. Human domination of the Earth's ecosystems. Science 277: 494 499.
113. Wakida, F.T. & D.N. Lerner. 2005. Non-agricultural sources of groundwater nitrate: a review and case study. Water Res. 39: 3 16.
114. Walsh, C.J., T.D. Fletcher & A.R. Ladson. 2005a. Stream restoration in urban catchments through redesigning stormwater systems: looking to the catchment to save the stream. J. North Am. Benthol. Soc. 24: 690 705.
115. Walsh, C.J., A.H. Roy, J.W. Feminella, et al. 2005b. The urban stream syndrome: current knowledge and the search for a cure. J. North Am. Benthol. Soc. 24: 706 723.
116. Wayland, K.G., D.T. Long, D.W. Hyndman, et al. 2003. Identifying relationships between baseflow geochemistry and land use with synoptic sampling and R-mode factor analysis. J. Environ. Qual. 32: 180 190.
117. Weathers, K.C., M.L. Cadenasso & S.T.A. Pickett. 2001. Forest edges as nutrient and pollutant concentrators: potential synergisms between fragmentation, forest canopies, and the atmosphere. Conserv. Biol. 15: 1506 1514.
118. Weller, D.E., T.E. Jordan, D.L. Correll & Z.J. Liu. 2003. Effects of land-use change on nutrient discharges from the Patuxent River watershed. Estuaries 26: 244 266.
119. Wickham, J.D., R.V. O'Neill, K.H. Riitters, et al. 2002. Geographic targeting of increases in nutrient export due to future urbanization. Ecol. Appl. 12: 93 106.
120. Wollheim, W.M., B.A. Pellerin, C.J. Vorosmarty & C.S. Hopkinson. 2005. N retention in urbanizing headwater catchments. Ecosystems 8: 871 884.
121. Zhu, W.X., N.D. Dillard & N.B. Grimm. 2004. Urban nitrogen biogeochemistry: status and processes in green retention basins. Biogeochemistry 71: 177 196.