Oral lichen planus

Quintessence International

Volumn 35, Issue 9, 2004, Pages 731-752

  Huber, Michaell A ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS HEALTH SCIENCE CENTER AT SAN ANTONIO   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ALLOPURINOL; ANTIBIOTIC AGENT; ANTIFUNGAL AGENT; ANTIINFECTIVE AGENT; ANTIMALARIAL AGENT; AZATHIOPRINE; BETA ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; BETAMETHASONE VALERATE; CLOBETASOL PROPIONATE; CORTICOSTEROID; CYCLOSPORIN; DAPSONE; DEXAMETHASONE; DIPEPTIDYL CARBOXYPEPTIDASE INHIBITOR; DIURETIC AGENT; FLUOCINONIDE; GLYCYRRHIZIC ACID; GRISEOFULVIN; HEAVY METAL; HYDROXYCHLOROQUINE; INTERFERON; LEVAMISOLE; LORAZEPAM; METHYLDOPA; ORAL CONTRACEPTIVE AGENT; PENICILLAMINE; PHENYTOIN; PREDNISONE; PROBENECID; PSYCHOTROPIC AGENT; RETINOID; SULODEXIDE; TRIAMCINOLONE ACETONIDE; TSUKUBAENOLIDE; ULOBETASOL PROPIONATE; UNINDEXED DRUG;

ARTHRALGIA; BONE MARROW SUPPRESSION; BULLOUS SKIN DISEASE; BURNING SENSATION; CANDIDIASIS; CHILL; CHRONIC LIVER DISEASE; CLINICAL FEATURE; CONSULTATION; CUSHING SYNDROME; DEPRESSION; DIAGNOSTIC PROCEDURE; DIARRHEA; DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS; DISCOID LUPUS ERYTHEMATOSUS; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; DIZZINESS; DRUG CONTRAINDICATION; DRUG INDICATION; DRUG POTENCY; DRUG WITHDRAWAL; DYSGEUSIA; EPIDEMIOLOGICAL DATA; ERYTHEMA MULTIFORME; FEVER; FLUID RETENTION; GASTROINTESTINAL SYMPTOM; GRAFT VERSUS HOST REACTION; GYNECOMASTIA; HEADACHE; HEMOLYTIC ANEMIA; HEPATITIS C; HUMAN; HYPERTENSION; IMPOTENCE; INFECTION; INSOMNIA; LEUKOPENIA; LICHEN PLANUS; LICHENOID; LICHENOID ERUPTION; LIVER TOXICITY; MOOD DISORDER; MOUTH CARCINOMA; MUSCLE WEAKNESS; NAUSEA; NERVOUSNESS; PANCREATITIS; PATHOGENESIS; PEMPHIGUS VULGARIS; PERIORAL DERMATITIS; PRURITUS; PUVA; RASH; RETINOPATHY; REVIEW; SIDE EFFECT; SQUAMOUS CELL CARCINOMA; STOMACH PAIN; STOMATITIS; SYSTEMIC LUPUS ERYTHEMATOSUS; THROMBOCYTOPENIA; TREATMENT PLANNING; VOMITING;

CARCINOMA, SQUAMOUS CELL; CELL TRANSFORMATION, NEOPLASTIC; DIAGNOSIS, DIFFERENTIAL; GLUCOCORTICOIDS; HEPATITIS C; HUMANS; LICHEN PLANUS, ORAL; MOUTH NEOPLASMS; PREDNISONE;

EID: 4544343923     PISSN: 00336572     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (146)

1. Axéll T. Hypersensitivity of the oral mucosa: Clinics and pathology. Acta Odontol Scand 2001;59:315-319.
2. Boisnic S, Frances C, Branchet M-C, Szpirglas H, Le Charpentier Y. Immunohistochemical study of oral lesions of lichen planus: Diagnostic and pathophysiologic aspects. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol 1990;70:462-465.
3. Chaiyarit P, Kafrawy AH, Miles DA, Zunt SL, Van Dis ML, Gregory RL. Oral lichen planus: An immunohistochemical study of heat shock proteins (HSPs) and cytokeratins (CKs) and a unifying hypothesis of pathogenesis. J Oral Pathol Med 1999;28:210-215.
4. Dorrego MV, Correnti M, Delgado R, Tapia FJ. Oral lichen planus: Immunohistology of mucosal lesions. J Oral Pathol Med 2002;31:410-414.
5. Edwards PC, Kelsch R. Oral lichen planus: Clinical presentation and management. J Can Dent Assoc 2002;68:494-499.
6. Eisen D. The clinical features, malignant potential, and systemic associations of oral lichen planus: A study of 723 patients. J Am Acad Dermatol 2002;46:207-214.
7. Lombardi T, Phillippeaux MM, Hadengue A, Samson J, Borisch B, Rubbia-Brandt L. Absence of leukocyte microchimerism in oral lichen planus (OLP): An in situ hybridisation study. J Oral Pathol Med 2001;30:398-401.
8. Nepplberg E, Johannessen AC, Jonsson R. Apoptosis in oral lichen planus. Eur J Oral Sci 2001;109:361-364.
9. O'Flatharta C, Leader M, Kay E, et al. Telomerase activity detected in oral lichen planus by RNA in situ hybridisation: Not a marker for malignant transformation. J Clin Pathol 2002;55:602-607.
10. Prolo P, Chiappelli F, Cajulis E, et al. Psychoneuroimmunology in oral biology and medicine. The model of oral lichen planus. Ann NY Acad Sci 2002;966:429-440.
11. Romero MA, Seoane J, Varela-Centelles P, Diz-Dios P, Otero XL. Clinical and pathological characteristics of oral lichen planus in hepatitis C-positive and -negative patients. Clin Otolaryngol 2002;27:22-26.
12. Silverman S Jr. Lichen planus. Curr Opin Dent 1991;1: 769-772.
13. Sklavounou A, Chrysomali E, Scorilas A, Karameris A. TNF-α expression and apoptosis-regulating proteins in oral lichen planus: A comparative immunohistochemical evaluation. J Oral Pathol Med 2000;29:370-375.
14. Sun A, Chia J-S, Chang Y-F, Chiang C-P. Serum interleukin-6 level is a useful marker in evaluating therapeutic effect of levamisole and Chinese medicinal herbs on patients with oral lichen planus. J Oral Pathol Med 2002;31:196-203.
15. Taniguchi Y, Nagao T, Maeda H, Kameyama Y, Warnakulasuriya KAAS. Epithelial cell proliferation in oral lichen planus. Cell Prolif 2002;35:103-109.
16. Zhao ZZ, Savage NW, Sugerman PB, Walsh LJ. Mast cell/T cell interactions in oral lichen planus. J Oral Pathol Med 2002;31:189-195.
17. Zhou XJ, Sugerman PB, Savage NW, Walsh LJ, Seymour GJ. Intra-epithelial CD8+ T cells and basement membrane disruption in oral lichen planus. J Oral Pathol Med 2002; 31:23-27.
18. Sugerman PB, Savage NW, Zhou X, Walsh LJ, Bigby M. Oral lichen planus. Clin Dermatol 2000;18:533-539.
19. Thornhill MH. Immune mechanisms in oral lichen planus. Acta Odontol Scand 2001;59:174-177.
20. Da Silva Fonseca LM, do Carmo MAV. Identification of the AgNORs, PCNA, and ck16 proteins in oral lichen planus. Oral Dis 2001;7:344-348.
21. Siegel MA. Strategies for management of commonly encountered oral mucosal disorders. J Calif Dent Assoc 1999; 27:210-227.
22. Chainani-Wu N, Silverman S Jr, Lozada-Nur F, Mayer P, Watson JJ. Oral lichen planus. Patient profile, disease progression, and treatment responses. J Am Dent Assoc 2001;132:901-909.
23. Silverman S Jr. The bullous desquamative lesions of oral mucosa. J Calif Dent Assoc 2000;28:928-932.
24. Hasséus B, Jontell M, Brune M, Johansson P, Dahlgren UI. Langerhans cells and T cells in oral graft versus host and oral lichen planus. Scand J Immunol 2001;54:516-524.
25. Kovač-Kavčič M, Skalerič U. The prevalence of oral mucosal lesions in a population in Ljubljana, Slovenia. J Oral Pathol Med 2000;29:331-335.
26. Vincent SD, Fotos PG, Baker KA, Williams TP. Oral lichen planus: The clinical, historical, and therapeutic features of 100 cases. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol 1990;70: 165-171.
27. Mignogna MD, Lo Muzio L, Favia G, Mignogna RE, Carbone R, Bucci E. Oral lichen planus and HCV infection: A clinical evaluation of 263 cases. Int J Dermatol 1998; 37:575-578.
28. Setterfield JF, Black MM, Challacombe SJ. The management of oral lichen planus. Clin Exp Dermatol 2000;25:176-182.
29. Silverman S Jr, Gorsky M, Lozada-Nur F, Giannotti K. A prospective study of findings and management in 214 patients with oral lichen planus. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol 1991;71:665-670.
30. Bagán-Sebastián JV, Milián-Masanet MA, Peñarrocha-Diago M, Jiménez Y. A clinical study of 205 patients with oral lichen planus. J Oral Maxillofac Surg 1992;50:116-118.
31. Lundström IM. Incidence of diabetes mellitus in patients with oral lichen planus. Int J Oral Surg 1983;12:147-152.
32. Petrou-Amerikanou C, Markopoulos AK, Belazi M, Karamitsos D, Papanayotou P. Prevalence of oral lichen planus in diabetes mellitus according to the type of diabetes. Oral Dis 1998;4:37-40.
33. Akay A, Pekcanlar A, Bozdag KE, Altintas L, Karaman A. Assessment of depression in subjects with psoriasis vulgaris and lichen planus. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 2002;16: 347-352.
34. Lowental U, Pisanti S. Oral lichen planus according to the modern medical model. J Oral Med 1984;34:224-226.
35. Vallejo MJ, Huerta G, Cerero R, Seoane JM. Anxiety and depression as risk factors for oral lichen planus. Dermatology 2001;203:303-307.
36. Black MM. What is going on in lichen planus. Clin Exp Dermatol 1977;2:303-310.
37. Lacy MF, Reade PC, Hay KD. Lichen planus: A theory of pathogenesis. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol 1983;56: 521-526.
38. Ognjenovic M, Karelovic D, Cekic-Arambasin A, Tadin I, Vrebalov-Cindro V. Oral lichen planus and HLA DR. Coll Antropol 1998;22(suppl):97-101.
39. Borghelli RF, Pettinari IL, Chuchurru JA, Stirparo MA. Oral lichen planus in patients with diabetes. An epidemiologic study. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol 1993;75:498-500.
40. El-Serag HB, Hampel H, Yeh C, Rabeneck L. Extrahepatic manifestations of hepatitis C among United States male verterans. Hepatology 2002;36:1439-1445.
41. Gorsky M, Raviv M, Moskona D, Laufer M, Bodner L. Clinical characteristics and treatment of patients with oral lichen planus in Israel. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod 1996;82:644-649.
42. Guggenheimer J, Moore P, Rossie K, et al. Insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus and oral soft tissue pathologies: I. Prevalence and characteristics of non-candidial lesions. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod 2000;89:563-569.
43. Lozada-Nur F, Luangjarmekorn L, Silverman S Jr, Karam J. Assessment of plasma glucose in 99 patients with oral lichen planus. J Oral Med 1985;40:60-61.
44. Van Dis ML, Parks ET. Prevalence of oral lichen planus in patients with diabetes mellitus. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod 1995;79:696-700.
45. Bagán J, Ramón C, González L, et al. Preliminary investigation of the association of oral lichen planus and hepatitis C. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod 1998;85:532-536.
46. Tanei R, Watanabe K, Nishiyama S. Clinical and histopathologic analysis of the relationship between lichen planus and chronic hepatitis C. J Dermatol 1995;22:316-323.
47. Nagao Y, Sata M, Tanikawa K, Itoh K, Kameyama T. Lichen planus and hepatitis C virus in the northern Kyushu region of Japan. Eur J Clin Invest 1995;25:910-914.
48. Bagan JV, Aguirre JM, del Olmo JA, et al. Oral lichen planus and chronic liver disease: A clinical and morphometric study of the oral lesions in relation to transaminase elevation. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol 1994;78:337-342.
49. Carrozzo M, Gandolfo S, Carbone M, et al. Hepatitis C virus infection in Italian patients with oral lichen planus: A prospective case-controlled study. J Oral Pathol Med 1996; 25:527-533.
50. Gandolfo S, Carbone M, Carrozzo M, Gallo V. Oral lichen planus and hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection: Is there a relationship? A report of 10 cases. J Oral Pathol Med 1994; 23:119-122.
51. Sanchez-Perez J, De Castro M, Buezo GF, Fernandez-Herrera J, Borque MJ, Garcia-Diez A. Lichen planus and hepatitis C virus: Prevalence and clinical presentation of patients with lichen planus and hepatitis C virus infection. Br J Dermatol 1996;134:715-719.
52. Mignogna MD, Fedele S, Lo Russo L, Ruoppo E, Adamo D, Lo Muzio L. Extrahepatic manifestations of hepatitis C virus infection: The slowly unraveling picture of oral lichen planus. J Hepatol 2002;37:412-413.
53. Hadziyannis SJ. Nonhepatic manifestations and combined diseases in HCV infection. Dig Dis Sci 1996;41(12 suppl): 63S-74S.
54. Nagao Y, Sata M, Noguchi S, et al. Detection of hepatitis C virus RNA in oral lichen planus and oral cancer tissues. J Oral Pathol Med 2000;29:259-266.
55. Nagao Y, Tanaka J, Nakanishi T, et al. High incidence of extrahepatic manifestations in an HCV hyperendemic area. Hepatol Res 2002;22:27-36.
56. Dupin N, Chosidow O, Lunel F, Fretz C, Szpirglas H, Frances C. Oral lichen planus and hepatitis C virus infection: A fortuitous association? Arch Dermatol 1997;133: 1052-1053.
57. Grote M, Reichart PA, Berg T, Hopf U. Hepatitis C virus (HCV)-infection and oral lichen planus. J Hepatol 1998; 29:1034-1035.
58. Ingafou M, Porter SR, Scully C, Teo CG. No evidence of HCV infection or liver disease in British patients with oral lichen planus. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg 1998;27:65-66.
59. Roy KM, Dickson EM, Staines KS, Bagg J. Hepatitis C virus and oral lichen planus/lichenoid reactions: Lack of evidence for an association. Clin Lab 2000;46:251-254.
60. Van der Meij EH, van der Waal I. Hepatitis C virus infection and oral lichen planus: A report from the Netherlands. J Oral Pathol Med 2000;29:255-258.
61. Del Olmo JA, Pascual I, Bagán JV, et al. Prevalence of hepatitis C virus in patients with lichen planus of the oral cavity and chronic liver disease. Eur J Oral Sci 2000;108: 378-382.
62. Barnard NA, Scully C, Eveson JW, Cunningham S, Porter SR. Oral cancer development in patients with oral lichen planus. J Oral Pathol Med 1993;22:421-424.
63. Duffey DC, Eversole LR, Abemayor E. Oral lichen planus and its association with squamous cell carcinoma: An update on pathogenesis and treatment implications. Laryngoscope 1996;106:357-362.
64. Holmstrup P, Thorn JJ, Rindum J, Pindborg JJ. Malignant development of lichen planus-affected oral mucosa. J Oral Pathol 1988;17:219-225.
65. Mignogna MD, Lo Russo L, Fedele S, Ruoppo E, Califano L, Lo Muzio L. Clinical behaviour of malignant transforming oral lichen planus. Eur J Oral Surgical Oncol 2002;28: 838-843.
66. Scully C, Beyli M, Ferreiro MC, et al. Update on oral lichen planus: Etiopathogenesis and management. Crit Rev Oral Biol 1998;9:86-122.
67. Silverman S Jr. Oral lichen planus: A potentially premalignant lesion. J Oral Maxillofac Surg 2000;58:1286-1288.
68. Van der Meij EH, Schepman K-P, van der Waal I. The possible premalignant character of oral lichen planus and oral lichenoid lesions: A prospective study. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod 2003;96:164-171.
69. Holmstrup P. The controversy of a premalignant potential of oral lichen planus is over. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol 1992;73:704-706.
70. Mattsson U, Jontell M, Holmstrup P. Oral lichen planus and malignant transformation: Is a recall of patients justified. Crit Rev Oral Biol Med 2002;13:390-396.
71. Mignogna MD, Lo Muzio L, Lo Russo L, Fedele S, Ruoppo E, Bucci E. Clinical guidelines in early detection of oral squamous cell carcinoma arising in oral lichen planus: A 5-year experience. Oral Oncol 2001;37:262-267.
72. Pindborg JJ, Reichart PA, Smith CV, van der Waal I. Histological Typing of Cancer and Precancer of the Oral Mucosa, ed 2. Berlin: Springer, 1997:30.
73. Hietanen J, Paasonen M-R, Kuhlefelt M, Malmström M. A retrospective study of oral lichen planus patients with concurrent or subsequent development of malignancy. Oral Oncol 1999;35:278-282.
74. Kyrmizakis DE, Papadakis CE. Erosive form of lichen planus. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 1999;121:844.
75. McIntyre GT, Oliver RJ. Update on precancerous lesions. Dent Update 1999;26:382-386.
76. Rajentheran R, McLean NR, Kelly CG, Reed MF, Nolan A. Malignant transformation of oral lichen planus. Eur J Surg Oncol 1999;25:520-523.
77. Lo Muzio L, Mignogna MD, Favia G, Procaccini M, Testa NF, Bucci E. The possible association between oral lichen planus and oral squamous cell carcinoma: A clinical evaluation on 14 cases and a review of the literature. Oral Oncol 1998;34:239-246.
78. Moncarz V, Ulmansky M, Lustmann J. Lichen planus: Exploring its malignant potential. J Am Dent Assoc 1993;124:102-108.
79. Eisenberg E, Krutchkoff DJ. Lichenoid lesions of the oral mucosa. Diagnostic criteria and their importance in the alleged relationship to oral cancer. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol 1992;73:699-704.
80. Eisenberg E. Lichen planus and oral cancer: Is there a connection between the two? J Am Dent Assoc 1992;123: 104-108.
81. Eisenberg E. Oral lichen planus: A benign lesion. J Oral Maxillofac Surg 2000;58:1278-1285.
82. Krutchkoff DJ, Cutler L, Laskowski S. Oral lichen planus: The evidence regarding potential malignant transformation. J Oral Pathol 1978;7:1-7.
83. Epstein JB, Wan LS, Gorsky M, Zhang L. Oral lichen planus: Progress in understanding its malignant potential and the implications for clinical management. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod 2003;96:32-37.
84. Sigurgeirsson B, Lindelöf B. Lichen planus and malignancy. An epidemiologic study of 2071 patients and review of the literature. Arch Dermatol 1991;127:1684-1688.
85. Kim J, Yook JI, Lee EH, et al. Evaluation of premalignant potential in oral lichen planus using interphase cytogenetics. J Oral Pathol Med 2001;30:65-72.
86. Zhang L, Michelsen C, Cheng X, Zeng T, Priddy R, Rosin MP. Molecular analysis of oral lichen planus. Am J Oral Pathol 1997;151:323-327.
87. Zhang L, Cheng X, Li Y-h, et al. High frequency of allelic loss in dysplastic lichenoid lesions. Lab Ivest 2000;80: 233-237.
88. Wilson E. On leichen planus. J Cutan Med Dis Skin 1869;3: 117-132.
89. Boyd AS, Nelder KH. Lichen planus. J Am Acad Dermatol 1991;25:593-619.
90. Chiang C-T, Chan H-L. Superficial mycosis superimposing on isolated lichen planus of the lip: A case report and review of the literature. Cutis 2002;69:305-308.
91. Eisen D, Ellis CN, Duell EA, Griffiths CEM, Voorhees JJ. Effect of topical cyclosporine rinse on oral lichen planus. N Engl J Med 1990;323:290-294.
92. Hirota M, Ito T, Okudela K, et al. Cell proliferation activity and the expression of cell cycle regulatory proteins in oral lichen planus. J Oral Pathol Med 2002;31:204-212.
93. Lozada-Nur F, Miranda C. Oral lichen planus: Epidemiology, clinical characteristics, and associated diseases. Semin Cutan Med Surg 1997;16:273-277.
94. Popovsky JL, Camisa C. New and emerging therapies for diseases of the oral cavity. Dermatol Clin 2000;18:113-125.
95. Thorn JJ, Holmstrup P, Rindum J, Pindborg JJ. Course of various clinical forms of oral lichen planus. A prospective follow-up study of 611 patients. J Oral Pathol 1988;17:213-218.
96. Woo TY. Systemic isotretinoin treatment of oral and cutaneous lichen planus. Cutis 1985;35:385-386,390-391,393.
97. Mignona MD, Lo Muzio L, Lo Russo L, Fedele S, Ruoppo E, Bucci E. Oral lichen planus: Different clinical features in HCV-positive and HCV-negative patients. Int J Dermatol 2000;39:134-139.
98. Weaver T, Hall EH, Terezhalmy GT, Taybos GM. Clinical diagnosis and treatment of oral lichen planus. J Can Dent Assoc 1985;51:834-837.
99. Casiglia J, Woo S-B, Ahmed AR. Oral involvement in autoimmune blistering diseases. Clin Dermatol 2001;19: 737-741.
100. Conklin RJ, Blasberg B. Oral lichen planus. Dermatol Clin 1987;5:663-673.
101. Ayangco L, Rogers RS. Oral manifestations of erythema multiforme. Dermatol Clin 2003;21:195-205.
102. Bernstein ML. The diagnosis and management of chronic nonspecific mucosal lesions. J Calif Dent Assoc 1999; 27:290-299.
103. Bickle KM, Roark TR, Hsu S. Autoimmune bullous dermatoses: A review. Am Fam Physician 2002;65:1861-1870.
104. Challacombe SJ, Setterfield J, Shirlaw P, Harman K, Scully C, Black MM. Immunodiagnosis of pemphigus and mucous membrane pemphigoid. Acta Odontol Scand 2001;59:226-234.
105. Gately LE III, Nesbitt LT Jr. Update on immunofluorescent testing in bullous diseases and lupus erythematosus. Dermatol Clin 1994;12:133-142.
106. Nissalo S, Hietanen J, Malmström M, Hukkanen M, Polak J, Konttinen YT. Disorder-specific changes in innervation in oral lichen planus and lichenoid reactions. J Oral Pathol Med 2000;29:361-369.
107. Orteu CH, Buchanan JAG, Hutchison I, Leigh IM, Bull RH. Systemic lupus erythematosus presenting with oral mucosal lesions: Easily missed? Br J Dermatol 2001;144: 1219-1223.
108. Patel P, Werth V. Cutaneous lupus erythematosus: A review. Dermatol Clin 2002;20:373-385.
109. Thornhill MH, Pemberton MN, Simmonds RK, Theaker ED. Amalgam-contact hypersensitivity lesions and oral lichen planus. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod 2003;95:291-299.
110. Abdollahi M, Radfar M. A review of drug induced oral reactions. J Contemp Dent Pract 2003;4:10-31.
111. Brown RS, Hays GL, Flaitz CM. Treatment of gold salt-induced oral lichen planus: Report of a case. Cutis 1993; 51:183-185.
112. Koch P, Bahmer FA. Oral lesions and symptoms related to metals used in dental restorations: A clinical, allergological, and histologic study. J Am Acad Dermatol 1999;41: 422-430.
113. Eisen D. Hydroxychloroquine sulfate (Plaquenil) improves oral lichen planus: An open trial. J Am Acad Dermatol 1993;28:609-612.
114. Eisen D. The therapy of oral lichen planus. Crit Rev Oral Biol Med 1993;4:141-158.
115. Silverman S Jr, Gorsky M, Lozada-Nur F. A prospective follow-up study of 570 patients with oral lichen planus: Persistence, remission, and malignant association. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol 1985;60:30-34.
116. Aufdemorte TB, De Villex RL, Giesecker DR. Griseofulvin in the treatment of three cases of oral erosive lichen planus. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol 1983;55:459-462.
117. Beck HI, Brandrup F. Treatment of erosive lichen planus with dapsone. Acta Derm Venereol 1986;66:366-367.
118. Bogaert H, Sanchez E. Lichen planus: Treatment of 30 cases with systemic and topical phenytoin. Int J Dermatol 1990;29:157-158.
119. Buajeeb W, Kraivaphan P, Pobrurksa C. Efficacy of topical retinoic acid compared with topical fluocinolone acetonide in the treatment of oral lichen planus. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod 1997;83:21-25.
120. Chen HR. A newly developed method of treatment of oral lichen planus with ultraviolet irradiation. Taiwan Yi Xue Za Zhi 1989;88:248-252.
121. Da Nagao Y, Sata M, Suzuki H, Tanikawa K, Itoh K, Kameyama T. Effectiveness of glycyrrhizin for oral lichen planus in patients with chronic HCV infection. Gastroenterol 1996;31:691-695.
122. Falk DK, Latour DL, King LE Jr. Dapsone in the treatment of erosive lichen planus. J Am Acad Dermatol 1985;12:567-570.
123. Femiano F, Gombos F, Scully C. Oral erosive/ulcerative lichen planus: Preliminary findings in an open trial of sulodexide compared with cyclosporine (ciclosporin) therapy. Int J Dermatol 2003;42:308-311.
124. Gonzales-Moles MA, Morales P, Rodriguez-Archilla A, Isabel I R-A, Gonzales-Moles S. Treatment of severe chronic oral erosive lesions with clobetasol propionate in aqueous solution. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod 2002;93:264-270.
125. Gorsky M, Raviv M. Efficacy of etretinate (Tigason) in symptomatic oral lichen planus. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol 1992;73:52-55.
126. Harpenau LA, Plemons JM, Ress TD. Effectiveness of a low dose of cyclosporine in the management of patients with oral erosive lichen planus. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod 1995;80:161-167.
127. Jansen CT, Lehtinen R, Happonen RP, Lehtinen A, Soderlund K. Mouth PUVA: New treatment for recalcitrant oral lichen planus. Photodermatol 1987;4:165-166.
128. Lapidoth M, Arber N, Ben-Amitai D, Hagler J. Successful interferon treatment for lichen planus associated with chronic active hepatitis due to hepatitis C virus infection. Acta Derm Venereol 1997;77:171-172.
129. Lear JT, English JS. Erosive and generalized lichen planus responsive to azathioprine. Clin Exp Dermatol 1996;21: 56-57.
130. Lozada F. Prednisone and azathioprine in the treatment of patients with vesiculoerosive oral diseases. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol 1981;52:257-260.
131. Lu S-Y, Chen W-J, Eng H-L. Response to levamisole and low-dose prednisolone in 41 patients with chronic oral ulcers: A 3-year open clinical trial and follow-up study. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod 1998;86: 438-445.
132. Lundquist G, Forsgren H, Gajecki M, Emtestam L. Photochemotherapy of oral lichen planus. A controlled study. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod 1995;79:554-558.
133. Matthews RW, Pinkney RC, Scully C. The management of intransigent desquamative gingivitis with dapsone. Ann Dent 1989;48:41-43.
134. Olivier V, Lacour J-P, Mousnier A, Garraffo R, Monteil R, Ortonne J-P. Treatment of chronic erosive oral lichen planus with low concentrations of topical tacrolimus. Arch Dermatol 2002;138:1335-1338.
135. Petruzzi M, De Benedittis M, Grassi R, Cassano N, Vena G, Serpico R. Oral lichen planus: A preliminary clinical study on treatment with tazarotene. Oral Dis 2002;8: 291-295.
136. Sato M, Yoshida H, Yanagawa T, et al. Therapeutic effect of human fibroblast interferon on premalignant lesions arising in the oral mucosa. A pilot study. Int J Oral Surg 1985;14:184-194.
137. Scully C, Eisen D, Carrozzo M. Management of oral lichen planus. Am J Clin Dermatol 2000;5:287-306.
138. Siegel MA, Silverman S Jr, Sollecito TP. Clinician's Guide to Treatment of Common Oral Lesions, ed 5. Baltimore: American Academy of Oral Medicine, 2001
139. Sun A, Chiang C-P, Chiou P-S, Wang J-T, Liu B-Y, Wu Y-C. Immunomodulation by levamisole in patients with recurrent aphthous ulcers or oral lichen planus. J Oral Pathol Med 1994;23:172-177.
140. Sun A, Chiang CP. Levamisole and/or Chinese medicinal herbs can modulate the serum level of squamous cell carcinoma associated antigen in patients with erosive oral lichen planus. J Oral Pathol Med 2001;30:542-548.
141. Verma KK, Mittal R, Manchanda Y. Azathioprine for the treatment of severe erosive oral and generalized lichen planus. Acta Derm Venereol 2001;81:378-379.
142. Walchner M, Messer G, Salomon N, Plewig G, Röcken M. Topical tetracycline treatment of erosive oral lichen planus. Arch Dermatol 1999;135:92-93.
143. Chan ES, Thornhill M, Zakrzewska J. Interventions for treating oral lichen planus. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2000;2:1-22.
144. Huber MA, Drake AJ III. Pharmacology of the endocrine pancreas, adrenal cortex, and female reproductive organ. Dent Clin North Am 1996;40:753-777.
145. Lacy CF, Armstrong LL, Goldman MP, Lance LL. Drug Information Handbook, ed 10. Hudson, OH: Lexi-Comp, 2002.
146. Ho VC, Zloty DM. Immunosuppressive agents in dermatology. Dermatol Clin 1993;11:73-85.