Caloric restriction for longevity: I. Paradigm, protocols and physiological findings in animal research

European Eating Disorders Review

Volumn 12, Issue 5, 2004, Pages 279-299

  Vitousek, Kelly M ^a   Gray, Jennifer A ^a   Grubbs, Kathleen M ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF HAWAII   (United States)

Author keywords

Ageing; Biosphere 2; Dietary restriction; Eating disorders; Semi starvation

Indexed keywords

TRACE ELEMENT;

ADULTHOOD; ANOREXIA NERVOSA; BODY WEIGHT; CALCULATION; CALORIC INTAKE; CALORIC RESTRICTION; CLINICAL PROTOCOL; COST BENEFIT ANALYSIS; DIET RESTRICTION; EATING DISORDER; EATING HABIT; FOOD INTAKE; GROWTH DISORDER; HUMAN; LABORATORY; LIFESPAN; LONGEVITY; MEDICAL RESEARCH; MEDICAL SPECIALIST; MONKEY; MOUSE; NEMATODE; NONHUMAN; PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT; REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH; REVIEW; SENESCENCE; STRESS; TREATMENT OUTCOME; WEANING;

EID: 4544222975     PISSN: 10724133     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1002/erv.594     Document Type: Review

References (144)

1. 'Adzoe'. (2002). Proactive and bullish CR. Retrieved July 7, 2003 from http://group.yahoo.com/group/crsociety/message 21136.
2. Allen, J. (1991). Biosphere 2: The human experiment. New York: Viking.
3. Alling, A., & Nelson, M. (1993). Life under glass: The inside story of Biosphere 2. Oracle AZ: The Biosphere Press.
4. Allison, D. B., Miller, R. A., Austad, S. N., Bouchard, C., Leibel, R., Klebanov, S., et al. (2001). Genetic variability in responses to caloric restriction in animals and in regulation of metabolism and obesity in humans. Journals of Gerontology (Series A), 56A, 55-65.
5. Aly, K. B., Pipkin, J. L., Hinson, W. G., Feuers, R. J., Duffy, P. H., & Hart, R. W. (1994a). Temporal and substrate-dependent patterns of stress protein expression in the hypothalamus of caloric restricted rats. Mechanisms of Ageing and Development, 76, 1-10.
6. Aly, K. B., Pipkin, J. L., Hinson, W. G., Feuers, R. J., Duffy, P. H., Lyn-Cook, L., et al. (1994b). Chronic caloric restriction induces stress proteins in the hypothalamus of rats. Mechanisms of Ageing and Development, 76, 11-23.
7. Anson, R. M., Guo, Z., de Cabo, R., Iyun, T., Rios, M., Hagepanos, A., et al. (2003). Intermittent fasting dissociates beneficial effects of dietary restriction on glucose metabolism and neuronal resistance to injury from calorie intake. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 100, 6216-6220.
8. Arking, R. (2004). Extending human longevity: A biological probability. In S. G. Post, & R. H. Binstock (Eds.), The fountain of youth: Cultural, scientific, and ethical perspectives on a biomedical goal (pp. 177-200). New York: Oxford Press.
9. Armario, A., Montero, J. L., & Jolin, T. (1987). Chronic food restriction and the circadian rhythms of pituitary-adrenal hormones, growth hormone and thyroid-stimulating hormone. Annals of Nutrition and Metabolism, 31, 81-87.
10. Armstrong-Esther, C. A., Lacey, J. H., Crisp, A. H., & Bryant, T. N. (1978). An investigation of the immune response of patients suffering from anorexia nervosa. Postgraduate Medical Journal, 54, 395-399.
11. Associated Press. (1996). Biosphere tested temperaments. July 29.
12. Austad, S. N. (1997). Why we age: What science is discovering about the body's journey through life. New York: John Wiley.
13. Bachrach, L. K., Guido, D., Katzman, D., Litt, I. F., & Marcus, R. (1990). Decreased bone density in adolescent girls with anorexia nervosa. Pediatrics, 86, 440-447.
14. Bertrand, H. A., Lynd, F. T., Masoro, E. J., & Yu, B. P. (1980). Change in adipose mass and cellularity through the adult life of rats fed ad libitum or a life-prolonging restricted diet. Journal of Gerontology, 35, 827-835.
15. Best, B. (1998). My practice of caloric restriction with adequate nutrition. Retrieved November 27, 2000 from http:www.benbest.com/calories/cran98html
16. Best, B. (2002). My health regimen: Exercise, diet, supplements. Retrieved October 5, 2002 from http:www.benbest.com/personal/regimen.html
17. Biller, B. M. K., Saxe, V., Herzog, D. B., Rosenthal, D. I., Holzman, S., & Klibanski, A. (1989). Mechanisms of osteoporosis in adult and adolescent women with anorexia nervosa. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 68, 548-554.
18. Bodkin, N. L., Alexander, T. M., Ortmeyer, H. K., Johnson, E., & Hansen, B. C. (2003). Mortality and morbidity in laboratory-maintained rhesus monkeys and effects of long-term dietary restriction. Journal of Gerontology: Biological Sciences, 58A, 212-219.
19. Bowers, T. K., & Eckert, E. (1978). Leukopenia in anorexia nervosa: Lack of increased risk of infection. Archives of Internal Medicine, 138, 1520-1523.
20. Brozek, J., Wells, S., & Keys, A. (1946). Medical aspects of semi-starvation in Leningrad (Siege 1941-1942). American Review of Soviet Medicine, 4, 70-98.
21. Bucci, T. J. (1992). Dietary restriction: Why all the interest? An overview. Lab Animal, 21, 29-34.
22. Callahan, S. (1986). Adrift: Seventy-six days lost at sea. New York: Ballantine.
23. Casadesus, G., Shukitt-Hale, B., & Joseph, J. A. (2002). Qualitative versus quantitative caloric intake: Are they equivalent paths to successful aging? Neurobiology of Aging, 23, 747-769.
24. Castro, J., Lazaro, L., Pons, F., Halperin, I., & Toro, J. (2000). Predictors of bone mineral density reduction in adolescents with anorexia nervosa. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 39, 1365-1370.
25. Dhahbi, J. M., Kim, H.-J., Mote, P. L., Beaver, R. J., & Spindler, S. R. (2004). Temporal linkage between the phenotypic and genomic responses to caloric restriction. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 101, 5524-5529.
26. Dirx, M. J. M., Zeegers, M. P. A., Dagnelie, P. C., van den Bogaard, T., & van den Brandt, P. A. (2003). Energy restriction and the risk of spontaneous mammary tumors in mice: A meta-analysis. International Journal of Cancer, 106, 766-770.
27. Dong, W., Selgrade, M. J. K., Gilmour, M. I., Lange, R. W., Park, P., Luster, M. I., et al. (1998). Altered alveolar macrophage function in calorie-restricted rats. American Journal of Respiratory Cell and Molecular Biology, 19, 462-469.
28. Eddy, K. T., Keel, P. K., Dorer, D. J., Delinsky, S. S., Franko, D. L., & Herzog, D. B. (2002). Longitudinal comparison of anorexia nervosa subtypes. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 31, 191-201.
29. Emborg, C. (1999). Mortality and causes of death in eating disorders in Denmark 1970-1993: A case register study. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 25, 243-251.
30. Erickson, J. (1993). Biospherians return to world: 2-year mission described as 'magnificent'. Arizona Daily Star, September 27, p. 1A. Retrieved September 16, 2003, from http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/azstarnet/47916874.
31. Fichter, M. M., & Quadflieg, N. (1999). Six-year course and outcome of anorexia nervosa. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 26, 359-385.
32. Fishbein, L. (Ed.). (1991). Biological effects of dietary restriction (ILSI Monographs). New York: Springer-Verlag.
33. Forster, M. J., Morris, P., & Sohal, R. S. (2003). Genotype and age influence the effect of caloric intake on mortality in mice. FASEB J, 17, 690-692.
34. Golla, J. A., Larson, L. A., Anderson, C. F., Lucas, A. R., Wilson, W. R., & Tomasi, T. B., Jr. (1981). An immunological assessment of patients with anorexia nervosa. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 34, 2756-2762.
35. Graves, J. L. (1993). The costs of reproduction and dietary restriction: Parallels between insects and mammals. Growth, Development & Aging, 57, 233-249.
36. Greely, A. W. (1886). Three years of Arctic service: An account of the Lady Franklin Bay Expedition of 1881-1884 and the attainment of the farthest North (2 vols). London: Richard Bentley.
37. Grinspoon, S., Miller, K., Coyle, C., Krempin, J., Armstrong, C., Pitts, S. et al. (1999). Severity of osteopenia in estrogen-deficient women with anorexia nervosa and hypothalamic amenorrhea. Journal of Clinical Endrocrinology and Metabolism, 84, 2049-2055.
38. Han, E.-S., Evans, T. R., Shu, J. H., Lee, S., & Nelson, J. F. (2001). Food restriction enhances endogenous and corticotropin-induced plasma elevations of free but not total corticosterone throughout life in rats. Journal of Gerontology: Biological Sciences, 56A, B391-B397.
39. Hansen, B. C., & Bodkin, N. L. (1993). Primary prevention of diabetes by prevention of obesity in monkeys. Diabetes, 42, 1809-1814.
40. Harrison, D. E., & Archer, J. R. (1988). Biomarkers of aging: Tissue markers, future research needs, strategies, directions and priorities. Experimental Gerontology, 23, 309-321.
41. Harrison, D. E., & Archer, J. R. (1991). Genotype modulates the effects of caloric restriction on aging processes in rodents. In D. K. Ingram, G. T. Baker III, & N. W. Shock (Eds.), The potential for nutritional modulation of aging processes (pp. 137-155). Trumbull, CT: Food & Nutrition Press.
42. Hart, R. W., Neumann, D. A., & Robertson, R. T. (1995). Dietary restriction: Implications for the design and interpretation of toxicity and carcinogenicity studies. Washington, DC: ILSI Press.
43. Hart, R. W., & Turturro, A. (1998). Evolution and dietary restriction. Experimental Gerontology, 33, 53-60.
44. Hass, B. S., Lewis, S. M., Duffy, P. H., Ershler, W., Feuers, R. J., Good, R. A., et al. (1996). Dietary restriction in humans: Report on the Little Rock Conference on the value, feasibility, and parameters of a proposed study. Mechanisms of Ageing and Development, 91, 79-94.
45. Heilbronn, L. K., & Ravussin, E. (2003). Calorie restriction and aging: Review of the literature and implications for studies in humans. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 78, 361-369.
46. Herzog, D. B., Greenwood, D. N., Dorer, D. J., Flores, A. T., Ekeblad, E. R., Richards, A., et al. (2000). Mortality in eating disorders: A descriptive study. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 28, 20-26.
47. Heydari, A. R., Wu, B., Takahashi, R., Strong, R., & Richardson, A. (1993). Expression of heat shock protein 70 is altered by age and diet at the level of transcription. Molecular and Cellular Biology, 13, 2909-2918.
48. Holliday, R. (1989). Food, reproduction and longevity: Is the extended lifespan of calorie-restricted animals an evolutionary adaptation? BioEssays, 10, 125-127.
49. Holloszy, J. O. (1997). Mortality rate and longevity of food-restricted exercising male rats: A reevaluation. Journal of Applied Physiology, 82, 399-403.
50. Holloszy, J. O., & Kohrt, W. M. (1995). Exercise. In E. J. Masoro (Ed.), Handbook of physiology, Section 11: Aging (pp. 633-666). New York: Oxford University Press.
51. Holloszy, J. O., & Schechtman, K. B. (1991). Interaction between exercise and food restriction: Effects on longevity of male rats. Journal of Applied Physiology, 70, 1529-1535.
52. Hursting, S. D., Lavigne, J. A., Berrigan, D., Perkins, S. N., & Barrett, J. C. (2003). Calorie restriction, aging, and cancer prevention: Mechanisms of action and applicability to humans. Annual Review of Medicine, 54, 131-152.
53. Ingram, D. K. (2003). Development of caloric restriction mimetics as a prolongevity strategy (Abstract). Biogerontology, 4(Suppl. 1), 45-46.
54. Ingram, D. K., Cutler, R. G., Weindruch, R., Renquist, D. M., Knapka, J. J., April, M., et al. (1990). Dietary restriction and aging: The initiation of a primate study. Journal of Gerontology: Biological Sciences, 45, B148-B163.
55. Johannes, L. (2002). Lean times: The surprising rise of radical, calorie-cutting diet - could self deprivation be the secret to a longer, albeit famished, life? The Wall Street Journal Online. June 3. Retrieved August 5, 2003 from http://www.legacyalliance.net/Articles/News/Diet-Longevity.htm
56. Kahn, C. (1996). Eat less, live longer. Longevity, 47-48, 90-95.
57. Katzman, D. K., & Zipursky, R. B. (1994). Adolescents with anorexia nervosa: The impact of the disorder on bones and brains. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 817, 127-137.
58. Kemnitz, J. W., Weindruch, R., Roecker, E. B., Crawford, K., Kaufman, P. L., & Ershler, W. B. (1993). Dietary restriction of adult male rhesus monkeys: Design, methodology, and preliminary findings from the first year of study. Journal of Gerontology: Biological Sciences, 48, B17-B26.
59. Keys, A., Brozek, J., Henschel, A., Mickelsen, O., & Taylor, H. L. (1950). The biology of human starvation (2 Vols). Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.
60. Korndorfer, S. R., Lucas, A. R., Suman, V. J., Crowson, C. S., Krahn, L. E., & Melton, L. J. III. (2003). Long-term survival of patients with anorexia nervosa: A population-based study in Rochester, Minn. Mayo Clinic Proceedings, 78, 278-284.
61. Koubova, J., & Guarente, L. (2003). How does calorie restriction work? Genes & Development, 17, 313-321.
62. Kristal, B. S., & Yu, B. P. (1994). Aging and its modulation by dietary restriction. In B. P. Yu (Ed.), Modulation of aging processes by dietary restriction (pp. 1-35). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
63. Lane, M. A., Black, A., Handy, A., Tilmont, E. M., Ingram, D. K., & Roth, G. S. (2001). Caloric restriction in primates. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 92, 287-295.
64. Lane, M. A., Ingram, D. K., & Roth, G. S. (2002). The serious search for an anti-aging pill. Scientific American, 287, 36-41.
65. Lane, M. A., Mattison, J., Ingram, D. K., & Roth, G. S. (2002). Caloric restriction and aging in primates: Relevance to humans and possible CR mimetics. Microscopy Research and Technique, 59, 335-338.
66. Leakey, J. E. A., Chen, S., Manjgaladze, M., Turturro, A., Duffy, P. H., Pipkin, J. L., et al. (1994). Role of glucocorticoids and 'caloric stress' in modulating the effects of caloric restriction in rodents. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 719, 171-194.
67. Lennkh, C., deZwaan, M., Bailer, U., Strnad, A., Nagy, C., El-Giamal, N., et al. (1999). Osteopenia in anorexia nervosa: Specific mechanisms of bone loss. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 33, 349-356.
68. Leyton, G. B. (1946). Effects of slow starvation. Lancet, 2, 73-79.
69. Lin, S.-J., Kaeberlein, M., Andalis, A. A., Sturtz, L. A., Defossez, P-A., Culotta, V. C., et al. (2002). Calorie restriction extends Saccharomyces cerevisiae lifespan by increasing respiration. Nature, 418, 344-348.
70. Lipman, R. D., Dallal, G. E., & Bronson, R. T. (1999). Lesion biomarkers of aging in B6C3F1 hybrid mice. Journal of Gerontology: Biological Sciences, 54A, B466-B477.
71. Lowe, B., Zipfel, S., Buchholz, C., Dupont, Y., Reas, D. L., & Herzog, W. (2001). Long-term outcome of anorexia nervosa in a prospective 21-year follow-up study. Psychological Medicine, 31, 881-890.
72. Mair, W., Goymer, P., Pletcher, S. D., & Partridge, L. (2003). Demography of dietary restriction and death in drosophila. Science, 301, 1731-1733.
73. Manke, F. P., & Vitousek, K. M. (2002). Comment: Hunger, semi-starvation, and ill-health. American Psychologist, 57, 371-372.
74. Masoro, E. J. (1988). Food restriction in rodents: An evaluation of its role in the study of aging. Journal of Gerontology: Biological Sciences, 43, B59-B64.
75. Masoro, E. J. (1992). The role of animal models in meeting the gerontologic challenge of the 21st century. The Gerontologist, 32, 627-633.
76. Masoro, E. J. (1995). Design issues in the use of the diet-restricted rodent model. In R. W. Hart, D. A. Neumann, & R. T. Robertson (Eds.), Dietary restriction: Implications for the design and interpretation of toxicity and carcinogenicity studies (pp. 41-50). Washington, DC: ILSI Press.
77. Masoro, E. J. (2001). Dietary restriction: An experimental approach to the study of the biology of aging. In E. J. Masoro, & S. N. Austad (Eds.), Handbook of the biology of aging (5th ed.) (pp. 396-420). New York: Academic Press.
78. Masoro, E. J., & Austad, S. N. (1996). The evolution of the antiaging action of dietary restriction: A hypothesis. Journal of Gerontology: Biological Sciences, 51A, B387-B391.
79. Masoro, E. J., Yu, B. P., & Lynd, F. T. (1980). Nutritional probe of the aging process. Federation Proceedings, 39, 3178-3182.
80. Mattson, M. P., Chan, S. L., & Duan, W. (2002). Modification of brain aging and neurodegenerative disorders by genes, diet, and behavior. Physiological Reviews, 82, 637-672.
81. Mattson, M.P., Duan, W., & Guo, Z. (2003). Meal size and frequency affect neuronal plasticity and vulnerability to disease: Cellular and molecular mechanisms. Journal of Neurochemistry, 84, 417-431.
82. McCay, C. M., Crowell, M. F., & Maynard, L. A. (1935). The effect of retarded growth upon the length of life span and upon the ultimate body size. Journal of Nutrition, 10, 63-79.
83. McCay, C. M., Maynard, L. A., Sperling, G., & Barnes, L. L. (1939). Retarded growth, life span, ultimate body size and age changes in the albino rat after feeding diets restricted in calories. Journal of Nutrition, 18, 1-13.
84. McShane, T. M., & Wise, P. M. (1996). Life-long moderate caloric restriction prolongs reproductive life span in rats without interrupting estrous cyclicity: Effects on the gonadotropin-releasing hormone/luteinizing hormone axis. Biology of Reproduction, 54, 70-75.
85. Means, L. W., Higgins, J. L., & Fernandez, T. J. (1993). Mid-life onset of dietary restriction extends life and prolongs cognitive functioning. Physiology & Behavior, 54, 503-508.
86. Merry, B. J. (1995). Effect of dietary restriction on aging: An update. Reviews in Clinical Gerontology, 5, 247-258.
87. Merry, B. J. (2002). Molecular mechanisms linking calorie restriction and longevity. The International Journal of Biochemistry & Cell Biology, 34, 1340-1354.
88. Merry, B. J., & Holehan, A. M. (1991). The effect of dietary restriction on the endocrine control of reproduction. In L. Fishbein (Ed.), Biological effects of dietary restriction (ILSI Monographs) (pp. 140-146). New York: Springer-Verlag.
89. Michels, K. B., & Ekbom, A. (2004). Caloric restriction and incidence of breast cancer. JAMA, 291, 1226-1230.
90. Mobbs, C. V., Bray, G. A., Atkinson, R. L., Bartke, A., Finch, C. E., Maratos-Flier, E., et al. (2001). Neuroendocrine and pharmacological manipulations to assess how caloric restriction increases life span. Journals of Gerontology (Series A), 56A, 34-44.
91. Nelson, J. F., Gosden, R. G., & Felicio, L. S. (1985). Effect of dietary restriction on estrous cyclicity and follicular reserves in aging C57BL/6J mice. Biology of Reproduction, 32, 515-522.
92. Nielsen, S., Moller-Madsen, S., Isager, T., Jorgensen, J., Pagsberg, K., & Theander, S. (1998). Standardized mortality in eating disorders: A quantitative summary of previously published and new evidence. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 44, 413-434.
93. Palmer, R. L. (2003). Death in anorexia nervosa. The Lancet, 361, 1490.
94. Patel, N. V., & Finch, C. E. (2002). The glucocorticoid paradox of caloric restriction in slowing brain aging. Neurobiology of Aging, 23, 707-717.
95. Phelan, J. P., & Austad, S. N. (1989). Natural selection, dietary restriction, and extended longevity. Growth, Development, and Aging, 53, 4-6.
96. Pinel, J. P. J. (2000). Biopsychology (4th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
97. Pinel, J. P. J., Assanand, S., & Lehman, D. R. (2000). Hunger, eating, and ill health. American Psychologist, 55, 1105-1116.
98. Poehlman, E. T., Turturro, A., Bodkin, N., Cefalu, W., Heymsfield, S., Holloszy, J., et al. (2001). Caloric restriction mimetics: Physical activity and body composition changes. Journals of Gerontology (Series A), 56A, 45-54.
99. Pomeroy, C., & Mitchell, J. E. (2002). Medical complications of anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa. In C. G. Fairburn, & K. D. Brownell (Eds.), Eating disorders and obesity: A comprehensive handbook (pp. 278-285). New York: Guilford Press.
100. Ramsey, J. J., Colman, R. J., Binkley, N. C., Christensen, J. D., Gresl, T. A., Kemnitz, J. W., et al. (2000). Dietary restriction and aging in rhesus monkeys: The University of Wisconsin study. Experimental Gerontology, 35, 1131-1149.
101. Reed, M. J., Penn, P. E., Li, Y., Birnbaum, R., Vernon, R. B., Johnson, T. S., et al. (1996). Enhanced cell proliferation and biosynthesis mediate improved wound repair in refed, caloric-restricted mice. Mechanisms of Ageing and Development, 89, 21-43.
102. Rigotti, N. A., Neer, R. M., Skates, S. J., Herzog, D. B., & Nussbaum, S. R. (1991). The clinical course of osteoporosis in anorexia nervosa: A longitudinal study of cortical bone mass. JAMA, 265, 1133-1138.
103. Rikke, B. A., Yerg, J. E. III, Battaglia, M. E., Nagy, T. R., Allison, D. B., & Johnson, T. E. (2003). Strain variation in the response of body temperature to dietary restriction. Mechanisms of Ageing and Development, 124, 663-678.
104. Roberts, S. B., Pi-Sunyer, X., Kuller, L., Lane, M. A., Ellison, P., Prior, J. C., et al. (2001). Physiologic effects of lowering caloric intake in nonhuman primates and nonobese humans. Journals of Gerontology (Series A), 56A, 66-75.
105. Roecker, E. B., Kemnitz, J. W., Ershler, W. B., & Weindruch, R. (1996). Reduced immune responses in rhesus monkeys subjected to dietary restriction. Journal of Gerontology: Biological Sciences, 51A, B276-B279.
106. Roth, G. S., Ingram, D. K., & Lane, M. A. (2001). Caloric restriction in primates and relevance to humans. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 92, 305-315.
107. Sanderson, J. P., Binkley, N., Roecker, E. B., Champ, J. E., Pugh, T. D., Aspnes, L., et al. (1997). Influence of fat intake and caloric restriction on bone in aging male rats. Journal of Gerontology: Biological Sciences, 52A, B20-B25.
108. Serpell, L., & Treasure, J. (1997). Osteoporosis: A serious health risk in chronic anorexia nervosa. European Eating Disorders Review, 5, 149-157.
109. Shanley, D. P., & Kirkwood, T. B. L. (2000). Calorie restriction and aging: A life-history analysis. Evolution, 54, 740-750.
110. Siemers, B., Chakmakjian, Z., & Gench, B. (1996). Bone density patterns in women with anorexia nervosa. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 19, 179-186.
111. Silverstone, S. (1993). Eating in: From the field to the kitchen in Biosphere 2. Oracle, AZ: The Biosphere Press.
112. Silverstone, S., & Nelson, M. (1996). Food production and nutrition in Biosphere 2: Results from the first mission September 1991 to September 1993. Advances in Space Research, 18, 49-61.
113. Sohal, R. S., & Weindruch, R. (1996). Oxidative stress, caloric restriction, and aging. Science, 273, 59-63.
114. Spindler, S. R., Dhahbi, J. D., Mote, P. L., Kim, H. J., & Tsuchiya, T. (2003). Rapid identification of candidate CR mimetics using microarray (Abstract). Biogerontology, 4(Suppl. 1), 89.
115. Stewart, J., Meaney, M. J., Ailken, D., Jensen, L., & Kalant, N. (1988). The effects of acute and life long food restriction in basal and stress-induced serum corticosterone levels in young and aged rats. Endocrinology, 123, 1934-1941.
116. Sullivan, P. F. (2003). Editorial: Discrepant results regarding long-term survival of patients with anorexia nervosa? Mayo Clinic Proceedings, 78, 273-274.
117. Sun, D., Muthukumar, A. R., Lawrence, R. A., & Fernandes, G. (2001). Effects of calorie restriction on polymicrobial peritonitis induced by cecum ligation and puncture in young C57BL/6 mice. Clinical and Diagnostic Laboratory Immunology, 8, 1003-1011.
118. Taubes, G. (2000). Famine of youth. Scientific American Presents, June. Retrieved April 27, 2002 from http://www.sciam.com
119. Thygesen, P., Hermann, K., & Willanger, R. (1970). Concentration camp survivors in Denmark: Persecution, disease, disability, compensation. Danish Medical Bulletin, 17, 65-108.
120. Verdery, R. B., & Walford, R. L. (1998). Changes in plasma lipids and lipoproteins in humans during a 2-year period of dietary restriction in Biosphere 2. Archives of Internal Medicine, 158, 900-906.
121. Vitousek, K. M., & Gray, J. (2002). Comment: 'Sun, moon, and stars'. American Psychologist, 57, 370-371.
122. Vitousek, K. M., Gray, J. A., & Gonzalez, V. Hunger in anorexia nervosa. Manuscript in preparation.
123. Vitousek, K. M., Gray, J. A., & Talesfore, C. Caloric restriction for longevity in humans: A new rationale for semi-starvation. In press.
124. Vitousek, K. M. Manke, F. P., Gray, J. A., & Vitousek, M. N. Caloric restriction for longevity, II: The systematic neglect of behavioral and psychological outcomes in animal research. European Eating Disorders Review. In press.
125. Vitousek, K. M., Manke, F. P., Stumpf, R., & Gray, J. A. The implications of Biosphere 2 for caloric restriction: A dissenting perspective. Manuscript in preparation.
126. Vitousek, K., Watson, S., & Wilson, G. T. (1998). Enhancing motivation for change in treatment-resistant eating disorders. Clinical Psychology Review, 18, 391-420.
127. Walford, R. L. (1983). Maximum life span. New York: W.W. Norton.
128. Walford, R. L. (1986). The 120-year diet. New York: Simon & Schuster.
129. Walford, R. (2000). Beyond the 120-year diet: How to double your vital years. New York: Four Walls Eight Windows.
130. Walford, R. L., Harris, S. B., & Gunion, M. W. (1992). The calorically restricted low-fat, nutrient-dense diet in Biosphere 2 significantly lowers blood glucose, total leukocyte count, cholesterol, and blood pressure in humans. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, 89, 11533-11537.
131. Walford, R. L., Mock, D., McCallum, T., & Laseter, J. L. (1999). Physiologic changes in humans subjected to severe, selective calorie restriction for two years in Biosphere 2: Health, aging, and toxicological perspectives. Toxicological Sciences, 52(Suppl. 2), 61-65.
132. Walford, R. L., & Walford, L. (1994). The anti-aging plan. New York: Four Walls Eight Windows.
133. Walford, R. L., Weber, L. J., & Panov, S. (1995). Caloric restriction and aging as viewed from Biosphere 2. Receptor, 5, 29-33.
134. Wanagat, J., Allison, D. B., & Weindruch, R. (1999). Caloric intake and aging: Mechanisms in rodents and a study in nonhuman primates. Toxicological Sciences, 52(Suppl.), 35-40.
135. Weindruch, R. (1991). Terminology and methods in dietary restriction research. In L. Fishbein (Ed.), Biological effects of dietary restriction (ILSI Monographs) (pp. 3-15). New York: Springer-Verlag.
136. Weindruch, R. (1996). Caloric restriction and aging. Scientific American, 274, 46-52.
137. Weindruch, R., Keenan, K. P., Carney, J. M., Fernandes, G., Feuers, R. J., Floyd, R. A., et al. (2001). Caloric restriction mimetics: Metabolic interventions. Journals of Gerontology (Series A), 56A, 20-33.
138. Weindruch, R., Kemnitz, J. W., & Uno, H. (1995). Interspecies variations in physiologic and antipathologic outcomes of dietary restriction. In R. W. Hart, D. A. Neumann, & R. T. Robertson (Eds.), Dietary restriction: Implications for the design and interpretation of toxicity and carcinogenicity studies (pp. 351-364). Washington, DC: ILSI Press.
139. Weindruch, R., & Walford, R. L. (1988). The retardation of aging and disease by dietary restriction. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.
140. Weindruch, R., Walford, R. L., Fligiel, S., & Guthrie, D. (1986). The retardation of aging in mice by dietary restriction: Longevity, cancer, immunity, and lifetime energy intake. Journal of Nutrition, 116, 641-654.
141. Weyer, C., Walford, R. L., Harper, I. T., Milner, M., MacCallum, T., Tataranni, P. A., et al. (2000). Energy metabolism after 2 years of energy restriction: The Biosphere 2 experiment. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 72, 946-953.
142. Yu, B. P. (Ed.). (1994). Modulation of aging processes by dietary restriction. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
143. Yu, B. P., & Chung, H. Y. (2001). Stress resistance by caloric restriction for longevity. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 92, 39-47.
144. Yu, B. P., Masoro, E. J., & McMahan, C. A. (1985). Nutritional influences on aging of Fischer 344 rats: I. Physical, metabolic, and longevity characteristics. Journal of Gerontology, 40, 657-670.