When does gender count further insights into gender schematic processing of female candidates' political advertisements

Sex Roles

Volumn 51, Issue 3-4, 2004, Pages 197-208

  Chang, Chingching ^a   Hitchon, Jacqueline C Bush ^b  

^a NATIONAL CHENGCHI UNIVERSITY   (Taiwan)

^b UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN MADISON   (United States)

Author keywords

gender schema; political advertising; schematic processing

Indexed keywords

EID: 4444300255     PISSN: 03600025     EISSN: 15732762     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1023/B:SERS.0000037763.47986.c2     Document Type: Article

References (58)

1. Bem, S. L. (1983). Gender schema theory and its implications for child development: Raising gender-aschematic children in a gender-schematic society. Signs, 8, 598-616.
2. Benze, J. G., & Declercq, E. R. (1985). The importance of gender in congressional and statewide elections. Social Science Quarterly, 66, 954-963.
3. Bless, H., Bohner, G., Schwarz, N., & Strack, F. (1990). Mood and persuasion: A cognitive response analysis. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 16, 331-345.
4. Bless, H., Clore, G. L., Schwarz, N., Golisano, V., & Rabe, C. (1996). Mood and the use of scripts: Does a happy mood really lead to mindlessness? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71, 665-679.
5. Bless, H., Schwarz, N., & Wieland, R. (1996). Mood and the impact of category membership and individuating information. European Journal of Social Psychology, 26, 935-959.
6. Bodenhausen, G. V., Kramer, G. P., & Susser, K. (1994). Happiness and stereotypic thinking in social judgment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66, 621-632.
7. Bower, G. H., Black, J. B., & Turner, J. T. (1979). Scripts in text comprehension and memory. Cognitive Psychologv, 11, 177-220.
8. Cantor, N., & Mischel, W. (1977). Traits as prototypes: Effects on recognition memory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 35, 38-44.
9. Chaiken, S. (1980). Heuristic versus systematic information processing and the use of source versus attribute cues in persuasion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39, 752-766.
10. Chang, C., & Hitchon, J. (1997). Mass media impact on voter response to women candidates: Theoretical development. Communication Theory, 7(1), 29-52.
11. Conover, P. J., & Feldman, S. (1989). Candidate perceptions in an ambiguous world: Campaigns, cues, and inference processes. American Journal of Political Science, 33, 917-940.
12. Edwards. J. A., & Weary, G. (1993). Depression and the impression-formation continuum: Piecemeal processing despite the availability of category information. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64, 636-645.
13. Fiske, S. T. (1984). Schema-based versus piecemeal politics: A patchwork quilt, but not a blanket, of evidence. In R. R. Lau & D. O. Sears (Eds.), Political cognition: The 19th Carnegie symposium on cognition (pp. 41-53). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
14. Fiske, S. T., & Taylor, S. E. (1991). Social cognition. New York: Random House.
15. Hastie, R. (1984). Causes and effects of causal attribution. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46, 44-56.
16. Hitchon, J. C., & Chang, C. (1995). Effects of gender schematic processing on the reception of political commercials for men and women candidates. Communication Research, 22, 430-458.
17. Hitchon, J. C., Chang, C., & Harris, R. (1997). Should women emote? Perceptual bias and opinion change in response to political ads for candidates of different genders. Political Communication, 14, 49-69.
18. Huddy, L., & Terkildsen, N. (1993). Gender stereotypes and the perception of male and female candidates. American Journal of Political Science, 37, 119-147.
19. Johnston, A., & White, A. B. (1994). Communication styles and female candidates: A study of the political advertising during 1986 senate elections. Journalism Quarterly, 71, 321-329.
20. Kahn, K. F. (1993). Senate elections in the news: Examining campaign coverage. Legislative Studies Quarterly, 20, 23-36.
21. Kahn, K. F. (1994). The distorted mirror: Press coverage of women candidates for statewide office. Journal of Politics, 56, 154-173.
22. Kahn, K. F. (1996). The political consequences of being a woman. New York: Columbia University Press.
23. Kahn, K. F., & Goldenberg, E. N. (1991). Women candidates in the news: An examination of gender differences in U.S. senate campaign coverage. Public Opinion Quarterly, 55, 180-199.
24. Kaid, L. L., & Johnston, A. (1991). Negative versus positive television advertising in U.S. presidential campaigns, 1960-1988. Journal of Communication, 41(3), 53-64.
25. Kolbe, R., & Burnett, M. (1991). Content-analysis research: An examination of applications with directives for improving research reliability and objectivity. Journal of Consumer Research, 18, 243-250.
26. Krippendorff, K. (1980). Content analysis: An introduction to its methodology. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
27. Kuykendall, D., & Keating, J. P. (1990). Mood and persuasion: Evidence for the differential influence of positive and negative states. Psychology and Marketing, 7, 1-9.
28. Lau, R. R. (1984). Dynamics of attribution process. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46, 1017-1028.
29. Leeper, M. (1991). The impact of prejudice on female candidates: An experimental look at voter inference. American Politics Quarterly, 19, 248-261.
30. Lodge, M., & Hamill, R. (1986). A partisan schema for political information processing. American Political Science Review, 80, 505-519.
31. Mackie, D. M., & Worth, L. T. (1989). Processing deficits and the mediation of positive affect in persuasion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 27-40.
32. Markus, H., & Sentis, K. (1982). The self in social information processing. In J. Suls (Ed.), Social psychological perspectives on the self (Vol. 1, pp. 41-70). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
33. Markus, H., & Wurf, E. (1987). The dynamic self-concept: A social psychological perspective. Annual Review of Psychology, 38, 299-337.
34. Markus, H., & Zajonc, R. B. (1985). The cognitive perspective in social psychology. In G. Lindzey & E. Aronson (Eds.). Handbook of social psychology (3rd ed., Vol. 1, pp. 137-230). New York: Random House.
35. Martin, C. L., & Halverson, C. F., Jr. (1981). A schematic processing model of sex typing and stereotyping in children. Child Development, 52, 1119-1134.
36. Minsky, M. (1975). A framework for representing knowledge. In P. H. Winston (Ed.), The psychology of computer vision (pp. 211-280). New York: McGraw-Hill.
37. Neisser, V. (1976). Cognition and reality: Principles and implications of cognitive psychology. San Francisco: Freeman.
38. Newhagen, J. E., & Reeves, B. (1991). Emotion and memory responses for negative political advertising: A study of television commercials used in the 1988 presidential election. In F. Biocca (Ed.), Television and political advertising: Vol. 1. Psychological processes (pp. 197-220). Hillsdale. NJ: Erlbaum.
39. Nisbett, R. E., & Ross, L. (1980). Human inference: Strategies and shortcomings in social judgment. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
40. Petty, R. E., & Cacioppo, J. T. (1979). Issue involvement can increase or decrease persuasion by enhancing message-relevant cognitive responses. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 1915-1926.
41. Rahn, W. M. (1993). The role of partisan stereotypes in information processing about political candidates. American Journal of Political Science, 37, 472-196.
42. Riggle, E. D., Ottati, V. C., Wyer, R. S., Kuklinski, J., & Schwarz, N. (1992). Bases of political judgments: The role of stereotypic and nonstereotypic information. Political Behavior, 14, 67-87.
43. Rosch, E. H. (1973). Natural categories. Cognitive Psychology, 4, 328-350.
44. Rosenwasser, S. M., & Dean, N. G. (1989). Gender role and political office. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 13, 77-85.
45. Rosenwasser, S. M., Rogers, R. R., Fling, S., Silvers-Pickens, K., & Butemeyer, J. (1987). Attitudes toward women and men in politics: Perceived male and female candidate competencies and participant personality characteristics. Political Psychology, 8, 191-200.
46. Rosenwasser, S. M., & Seale, J. K. (1988). Attitudes toward a hypothetical male or female presidential candidate. Political Psychology, 9, 591-598.
47. Sapiro, V. (1981-1982). If U.S. Senator Baker were a woman: An experimental study of candidate images. Political Psychology, 2, 61-83.
48. Sapiro, V. (1993). The political uses of symbolic women: An essay in honor of Murray Edelman. Political Communication, 10, 141-154.
49. Schwarz, N. (1990). Feelings as information: Informational and motivational functions of affective states. In E. T. Higgins & R. Sorrentino (Eds.), Handbook of motivation and cognition: Foundations of social behavior (Vol. 2, pp. 527-561). New York: Guilford.
50. Schwarz, N., & Bless, B. (1991). Happy and mindless, but sad and smart? The impact of affective states on analytical reasoning. In J. Forgas (Ed.), Emotion and social judgment (pp. 55-71). Oxford: Pergamon.
51. Schwarz, N., Bless, B., & Bohner, G. (1991). Mood and persuasion: Affective states influence the processing of persuasive communications. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 24, 161-199.
52. Shapiro, M. A., & Reiger, R. H. (1992). Comparing positive and negative advertising on radio. Journalism Quarterly, 69, 135-145.
53. Spiro, R. J. (1977). Remembering information from text: The "state of schema" approach. In R. C. Anderson, R. J. Spiro, & W. E. Montague (Eds.), Schooling and the acquisition of knowledge (pp. 137-165). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
54. Stangor, C. (1988). Stereotype accessibility and information processing. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 14, 694-708.
55. Taylor, S. E., & Crocker, J. (1981). Schematic bases of social information processing. In E. T. Higgins, C. A. Harman, & M. P. Zanna (Eds.), Social cognition: The Ontario Symposium (Vol. 1, pp. 89-134). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
56. Taylor, S. E., & Falcone, H. (1982). Cognitive bases of stereotyping: The relationship between categorization and prejudice. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 8, 426-432.
57. Tinkham, S. F., & Weaver-Lariscy, R. A. (1993). A diagnostic approach to assessing the impact of negative political television commercials. Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media, 37, 377-399.
58. Worth, L., & Mackie, D. M. (1987). Cognitive mediation of positive affect in persuasion. Social Cognition, 5, 76-94.