Towards a classification of organic enrichment in marine sediments based on biogeochemical indicators

Marine Pollution Bulletin

Volumn 56, Issue 5, 2008, Pages 810-824

  Hargrave, B T ^a   Holmer, M ^b   Newcombe, C P ^c  

^a BEDFORD INSTITUTE OF OCEANOGRAPHY   (Canada)

^b UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN DENMARK   (Denmark)

^c NONE   (Canada)

Author keywords

Biodiversity; Macrofauna; Sulfate reduction; Sulfides; Toxicity

Indexed keywords

BIOGEOCHEMISTRY; BIOLOGICAL MATERIALS; CONCENTRATION (PROCESS); MARINE POLLUTION; SEDIMENTS;

BIOGEOCHEMICAL INDICATORS; MARINE SEDIMENTS; NOMOGRAM;

ORGANIC COMPOUNDS;

SULFIDE; SULFUR;

BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLE; BIOINDICATOR; COMMUNITY STRUCTURE; MACROBENTHOS; MARINE SEDIMENT; NUTRIENT ENRICHMENT; ORGANIC MATTER; PH; POLLUTION EFFECT; SEDIMENTATION; SULFATE; SULFIDE; TOXICITY;

BIOGEOCHEMISTRY; CHEMICAL REACTION; HYPOXIA; MARINE ENVIRONMENT; NONHUMAN; REVIEW; SEDIMENT;

AEROBIOSIS; ANAEROBIOSIS; ANIMALS; CARBONATES; GEOLOGIC SEDIMENTS; SULFUR COMPOUNDS;

EID: 43249123373     PISSN: 0025326X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2008.02.006     Document Type: Review

References (131)

1. Aller R.C. Diagenetic processes near the sediment-water interface of Long Island Sound. I. Decomposition and nutrient element geochemistry. Adv. Geophys. 22 (1980) 237-350
2. Amjad S., and Gray J. Use of the nematode-copepod ratio as an index of organic pollution. Mar. Poll. Bull. 14 (1983) 178-181
3. Andersen F.Ø., and Hilder W. Comparison of oxygen microgradients, oxygen flux rates and electron transport system activity in coastal marine sediments. Limnol. Oceanogr. 37 (1987) 259-264
4. Anderson M.R., Tlusty M., and Pepper V.A. Organic enrichment at cold water aquaculture sites - the case of costal Newfoundland. In: Hargrave B.T. (Ed). Environmental Effects of Marine Finfish Aquaculture (2005), Springer, Berlin 99-113
5. Archer D., and Devol A.H. Benthic oxygen fluxes on the Washington shelf and slope: a comparison of in situ microelectrode and chamber flux measurements. Limnol. Oceanogr. 37 (1992) 614-629
6. Baas Becking L.G.M., Kaplan I.R., and Moore D. Limits of the natural environment in terms of pH and oxidation-reduction potentials. J. Geol. 68 (1960) 243-284
7. Bagarino T. Sulfide as an environmental factor and toxicant: tolerance and adaptations in aquatic organisms. Aquat. Toxicol. 24 (1992) 21-62
8. Berner R.A. Electrode studies of hydrogen sulfide in marine sediments. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 27 (1963) 563-575
9. Berner R.A. Diagenesis of iron minerals. In: Berner R.A. (Ed). Principles of Chemical Sedimentology (1971), McGraw-Hill, New York 192-209
10. Berner R.A. Early Diagenesis: a Theoretical Approach (1980), Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey p. 241
11. Berner R.A. A new geochemical classification of sedimentary environments. J. Sediment Petrol. 51 (1981) 359-365
12. Berner R. Sedimentary pyrite formation: an update. Geochim Cosmochim. Acta 48 (1984) 605-615
13. Blackburn T.H., Klieber P., and Fenchel T. Photosynthetic sulfide oxidation in marine sediments. Oikos 26 (1975) 103-108
14. Black K.D., Kiemer M.C.B., and Ezzi I.A. The relationships between hydrodynamics, the concentration of hydrogen sulfide produced by polluted sediments and fish health at several marine cage farms in Scotland and Ireland. J. Appl. Ichthyol. 12 (1995) 10-15
15. Boesen C.D., and Postma H. Pyrite formation in anoxic environments. Am. J. Sci. 288 (1988) 575-603
16. Brooks, K.M., 2001. An evaluation of the relationship between salmon farm biomass, organic inputs to sediments, physicochemical changes associated with those inputs and the infaunal response - with emphasis on total sediment sulfides, total volatile solids, and oxidation-reduction potential as surrogate endpoints for biological monitoring. Report to the Technical Advisory Group, MLWP, Nanaimo, BC.
17. Brooks K.M., and Mahnken C.V.W. Interactions of Atlantic salmon in the Pacific northwest environment II. Organic wastes. Fish. Res. 62 (2003) 255-293
18. Brooks K.M., Stierns A.R., Mahnken C.V.M., and Blackburn D.V. Chemical and biological remediation of the benthos near Atlantic salmon farms. Aquaculture 219 (2003) 355-377
19. Cai W.-J., and Sayles F.L. Oxygen penetration depths and fluxes in marine sediments. Mar. Chem. 52 (1996) 123-131
20. Canfield D.E. Sulfate reduction and oxic respiration in marine sediments: implications for organic carbon preservation in euxinic environments. Deep-Sea Res. 36 (1989) 121-128
21. Canfield D.E., Thamdrup B., and Hansen J.W. The anaerobic degradation of organic-matter in Danish coastal sediments - iron reduction, manganese reduction and sulphate reduction. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 57 (1993) 3867-3883
22. Chamberlain J., and Stucchi D. Simulating the effects of parameter uncertainty on waste model predictions of marine finfish aquaculture. Aquaculture 272 (2007) 296-311
23. Chamberlain J., Fernandes T.T., Read P., Nickell T.D., and Davis I.M. Impacts of biodeposits from suspended mussel (Mytilus edulis L.) culture on the surrounding surficial sediments. J. Mar. Sci. 58 (2001) 411-416
24. Chanton J.P., Martens C.S., and Goldhaber M.B. Biogeochemical leveling in an organic-rich coastal marine basin. 7. Sulfur mass balance, oxygen uptake and sulfate retention. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 51 (1987) 1187-1199
25. Cline J.D. Spectrophotometric determination of hydrogen sulfide in natural waters. Limnol. Oceanogr. 14 (1969) 454-458
26. Cloern J.E. Our evolving conceptual model of the coastal eutrohpication problem. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 210 (2001) 223-253
27. Cranford, P.J., Anderson, R., Archambault, P., Balch, T., Bates, S.S.,Bugden, G., Callier, M.D., Carver, C., Comeau, L., Hargrave, B., Harrison, W.G., Horn, E., Kepkay, P.E., Li, W.W.W., Mallet, A., Ouellette, M., Strain, P., 2006. Indicators and thresholds for use in assessing shellfish aquaculture impacts on fish habitat, CSAS Scientific Advisory Report 2006/034, available online: http://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/csas/Csas/status/2006/SAR-S2006_034_E.pdf.
28. Crawford C.M., Mitchell I.M., and Macleod C.K.A. Video assessment of environmental impacts of salmon farms. J. Mar. Sci. 58 (2001) 445-452
29. Crawford C.M., Macleod C.K.A., and Mitchell I.M. Effects of shellfish farming on the benthic environment. Aquaculture 224 (2003) 117-140
30. Cromey C.J., Nickell T.D., and Black K.D. DEPOMOD-modelling the deposition and biological effects of waste solids from marine cage farms. Aquaculture 214 (2002) 211-239
31. Dahlbäck B., and Gunnarsson L.Å.H. Sedimentation and sulfate reduction under a mussel culture. Mar. Biol. 63 (1981) 269-275
32. DFO, 2004. A scientific review of the potential environmental effects of aquaculture in aquatic systems. Vol. III. Near-field organic enrichment from marine finfish aquaculture (Wildish, D.J., Dowd, M., Sutherland, T.F., Levings, C.D.); Environmental fate and effect of chemicals associated with Canadian freshwater aquaculture (Scott, R.J.). Can. Tech. Rep. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 2450, ix + 117 pp.
33. DFO, 2005. Assessment of finfish cage culture in the marine environment, CSAS Science Advisory Report 2005/039, available online: http://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/csas/Csas/status/2005/SAR-S2005_039_E.pdf.
34. Diaz R.J., and Rosenberg R. Marine benthic hypoxia: a review of its ecological effects and the behavioral responses of benthic macrofauna. Oceanogr. Mar. Biol. Annu. Rev. 33 (1995) 245-303
35. Diaz R.J., Solan M., and Valente R.M. A review of approaches for classifying benthic habitats and evaluating habitat quality. J. Environ. Manage. 73 (2004) 165-181
36. Duplisea D., and Hargrave B.T. Response of meiobenthic size-structure, biomass and respiration to sediment organic enrichment. Hydrobiologia 339 (1996) 161-170
37. Ervik A., Hansen P.K., Aure J., Stigebrandt A., Johannessen P., and Jahnsen T. Regulating the local environmental impact of intensive marine fish farming - I. The concept of the MOM system (modelling ongrowing fish farms monitoring). Aquaculture 158 (1997) 85-94
38. Fenchel T. The ecology of marine microbenthos IV. Structure and function of the benthic ecosystem, its chemical and physical factors and the microfauna communities with special reference to the ciliated protozoa. Ophelia 6 (1969) 1-182
39. Fenchel T., and Blackburn T.H. Bacteria and Mineral Cycling (1979), Academic Press, London p. 225
40. Fenchel T.M., and Riedl R.J. The sulfide system: a new biotic community underneath the oxidized layer of marine sand bottoms. Mar. Biol. 7 (1970) 255-268
41. Fernandes T.F., Millerm K.L., and Read P.A. Monitoring and regulation of marine aquaculture in Europe. J. Appl. Ichthyol. 16 (2000) 138-143
42. Ferreira J.G. Development of an estuarine quality index based on key physical and biogeochemical features. Ocean Coastal Manage. 43 (2000) 99-122
43. Findlay R.H., and Watling L. Prediction of benthic impact for salmon net-pens based on the balance of benthic oxygen supply and demand. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 155 (1997) 147-157
44. Findlay R.H., Watling L., and Mayer L.M. Environmental impact of salmon net-pen culture on marine benthic communities in Maine. A case study. Estuaries 18 (1995) 145-179
45. Fossing H., and Jørgensen B.B. Measurement of bacterial sulfate reduction in sediments: evaluation of a single-step chromium reduction method. Biogeochemistry 8 (1989) 205-222
46. Gamenick I., Jahn A., Vopel K., and Giere O. Hypoxia and sulfide as structuring factors in a macrozoobenthic community on the Baltic Sea shore: colonization studies and tolerance experiments. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 144 (1996) 73-85
47. Giles H. Using Bayesian networks to examine consistent trends in fish farm benthic impact studies. Aquaculture 274 (2008) 181-195
48. Grant J., Hatcher A., Scott D.B., Pocklington P., Schafer C.T., and Winters G.V. A multidisciplinary approach to evaluating impacts of shellfish aquaculture on benthic communities. Estuaries 18 (1995) 124-144
49. Gray J.S., Wu R.S., and Or Y.Y. Effects of hypoxia and organic enrichment on the coastal marine environment. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 238 (2002) 249-279
50. Grieshaber M.K., and Völkel S. Animal adaptations for tolerance and exploitation of poisonous sulfide. Ann. Rev. Physiol. 60 (1998) 33-53
51. Grizzle R.E., and Penniman C.A. Effects of organic enrichment on estuarine macrofaunal benthos: a comparison of sediment profile imaging and traditional methods. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 74 (1991) 249-262
52. Hansen P.K., Ervik A., Schaanning M., Johannessen P., Aure J., Jahnsen T., and Stigebrandt A. Regulating the local environmental impact of intensive, marine fish farming II. The monitoring programme of the MOM system (modelling-ongoing fish farms-monitoring). Aquaculture 194 (2001) 75-92
53. Hargrave, B.T., 1994. A benthic enrichment index, p. 79-91. In B.T. Hargrave (Ed.), Modelling benthic impacts of organic enrichment from marine aquaculture. Can. Tech. Rep. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 1949, xi + 125 p.
54. Hargrave B.T., Duplesia D.E., Pfeiffer E., and Wildish D.J. Seasonal changes in benthic fluxes of dissolved oxygen and ammonium associated with marine cultured Atlantic salmon. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 96 (1993) 249-257
55. Hargrave B.T., Phillips G.A., Doucette L.I., White M.J., Milligan T.G., Wildish D.J., and Cranston R.E. Assessing benthic impacts of organic enrichment from marine aquaculture. Water, Air Soil Poll. 99 (1997) 641-650
56. Hartstein N.D., and Rowden A.A. Effects of biodeposits from mussel culture on macroinvertebrate assemblages at sites of different hydrodynamic regime. Mar. Environ. Res 57 (2004) 339-357
57. Heilskov A.C., and Holmer M. Effects of benthic fauna on organic matter mineralization in fish-farm sediments: importance of size and abundance. J. Mar. Sci. 58 (2001) 427-434
58. Heilskov A., Alperin M., and Holmer M. Benthic fauna bio-irrigation effects on nutrient regeneration in fish farm sediments. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 339 (2006) 204-225
59. Henderson A.R., and Ross D.J. Use of macrobenthic infaunal communities in the monitoring and control of the impact of marine cage fish farming. Aquacult. Res. 26 (1995) 659-678
60. Holmer M., and Heilskov A.C. Distribution and bioturbation effects of the tropical alpheid shrimp Alpheus macellarius in sediments impacted by milkfish farming. Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci. 76 (2008) 657-667
61. Holmer M., and Kristensen E. Impact of marine fish cage farming on metabolism and sulfate reduction of underlying sediments. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 80 (1992) 191-201
62. Holmer M., and Kristensen E. Seasonality of sulfate reduction and pore water solutes in a marine fish farm sediment: the importance of temperature and sedimentary organic matter. Biogeochemistry 32 (1996) 15-39
63. Holmer M., Marbá N., Terrados J., Duarte C.M., and Fortes M.D. Impacts of milkfish (Chanos chanos) aquaculture on carbon and nutrient fluxes in the Bolinao area, Philippines. Mar. Poll. Bull. 44 (2002) 685-696
64. Holmer M., Duarte C.M., Heilskov A., Olesen B., and Terrados J. Biogeochemical conditions in sediments enriched by organic matter from net-pen fish farms in the Bolinao area, Philippines. Mar. Poll. Bull. 46 (2003) 1470-1479
65. Holmer M., Wildish D., and Hargrave B.T. Organic enrichment from marine finfish aquaculture and effects on sediment processes. In: Hargrave B.T. (Ed). Environmental Effects of Marine Finfish Aquaculture (2005), Springer, Berlin 181-206
66. House W.A. Factors influencing the extent and development of the oxic zone in sediments. Biogeochemistry 63 (2003) 317-333
67. Howarth R.W. Pyrite: its rapid formation in a salt marsh and its importance to ecosystem metabolism. Science 203 (1979) 49-51
68. 2 - reduction measurements. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 48 (1984) 1807-1818
69. Jensen M.M., Thamdrup B., Rysgaard S., Holmer M., and Fossing H. Rates and regulation of microbial iron reduction in sediments of the Baltic-North Sea transition. Biogeochemistry 65 (2003) 295-317
70. Jørgensen B.B. The sulfur cycle of a coastal marine sediment (Limfjorden, Denmark). Limnol. Oceanogr. 22 (1977) 814-832
71. Jørgensen B.B. Mineralization of organic matter in the seabed - the role of sulfate reduction. Nature 296 (1982) 643-645
72. Julian D., Chang M.L., Judd J.R., and Arp A.J. Influence of environmental factors on burrow irrigation and oxygen consumption in the mudflat invertebrate Urechis caupo. Mar. Biol. 139 (2001) 163-173
73. Kalantzi I., and Karakassis I. Benthic impacts of fish farming: meta-analysis of community and geochemical data. Mar. Poll. Bull. 52 (2006) 484-493
74. Kallmeyer J., Ferdelman T.G., Weber A., Fossing H., and Jørgensen B.B. A cold chromium distillation procedure for radiolabeled sulfide applied to sulfate reduction measurements. Limnol. Oceanogr. Meth. 2 (2004) 171-180
75. Karakassis I., Taais M., and Haziyanni E. Seasonal variability in sediment profiles beneath fish farm cages in the Mediterranean. Mar Ecol. Prog. Ser. 162 (1998) 243-252
76. Karakassis I., Tsapakis M., Hatziyanni E., Papadopoulou K.-N., and Plaiti W. Impact of cage farming of fish on the seabed in three Mediterranean coastal areas. ICES J. Mar. Sci. 57 (2000) 1462-1471
77. Keimer M.C.B., Black K.D., Lussot D., Bullock A.M., and Ezzi I. The effects of chronic and acute exposure to hydrogen sulfide on Atlantic salmon (Salmo solar L.). Aquaculture 135 (1995) 311-327
78. 2, Mn, Fe, I- and S(-II) in marine pore waters with a solid-state voltametric microelectrode. Limnol. Oceanogr. 43 (1998) 325-333
79. Mazzola A., Mirto S., La Rosa T., Fabiano M., and Danovaro R. Fish farming effects on benthic community structure in coastal sediments: analysis of meiofaunal recovery. ICES J. Mar. Sci. 57 (2000) 1454-1461
80. Miron G., and Kristensen E. Factors influencing the distribution of nereid polychaetes: the sulfide aspect. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 93 (1993) 143-153
81. Miron G., and Kristensen E. Behavioral responses of three nereid polychaetes to injection of sulphide inside burrows. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 101 (1993) 147-155
82. Miron G., Landry T., Archambault P., and Frenette B. Effects of mussel culture husbandry practices on various benthic characteristics. Aquaculture 250 (2005) 138-154
83. Mirto S., La Rosa T., Danovaro R., and Mazzola A. Microbial and meiofaunal response to intensive mussel-farm biodeposition in coastal sediments of the western Mediterranean. Mar. Poll. Bull. 40 (2000) 244-252
84. Møller M.M., Nielsen L.P., and Jørgensen B.B. Oxygen responses and mat formation by Beggiatoa spp. Appl. Environ. Microb. 50 (1985) 373-382
85. Morse J.W., Thomson H., and Finneran D.W. Factors controlling sulfide geochemistry in sub-tropical estuarine and bay sediments. Aquat. Geochem. 13 (2007) 143-156
86. Nilsson H.C., and Rosenberg R. Benthic habitat quality assessment of an oxygen stressed fjord by surface and sediment profile images. J. Mar. Syst. 11 (1997) 249-264
87. Nilsson H.C., and Rosenberg R. Succession in marine benthic habitats and fauna in response to oxygen deficiency: analyzed by sediment profile-imaging and by grab samples. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 197 (2000) 139-149
88. Nilsson H.C., Jönsson B., Swanberg I.L., and Sundbäck K. Response of a marine shallow-water sediment system to an increased load of inorganic nutrients. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 71 (1991) 275-290
89. Nizzoli D., Welsh D.T., Fano E.A., and Viaroli P. Impact of clam and mussel farming on benthic metabolism and nitrogen cycling, with emphasis on nitrate reduction pathways. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 315 (2006) 151-165
90. Otero X.L., Calvo de Anta R.M., and Macías F. Sulphur partitioning in sediments and biodeposits below mussel rafts in the Ri{dotless}́a de Arousa (Galacia, NW Spain). Mar. Env. Res. 61 (2006) 305-325
91. Oviatt C.A., Quinn J.G., Maughan J.T., Ellis J.T., Sullivan B.K., Gearing J.N., Gearing P.J., Hunt C.D., Sampou P.A., and Latimer J.S. Fate and effects of sewage sludge in the coastal marine environment: a mesocosm experiment. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 41 (1987) 187-203
92. Pearson T.H., and Rosenberg R. Macrobenthic succession in relation to organic enrichment and pollution of the marine environment. Oceanogr. Mar. Biol. Ann. Rev. 16 (1978) 229-311
93. Pedersen O., Binzer T., and Borum J. Sulphide intrusion in eelgrass (Zostera marina L.). Plant Cell Environ. 27 (2004) 595-602
94. Pocklington P., Scott D.B., and Schafer C.T. Polychaete response to different aquaculture activities. Mém. Mus. Nat. Hist. Nat. 162 (1994) 511-520
95. Pohle, G., 1999. Benthos assessment at fallow sites. Final report to the New Brunswick Department of Fisheries and Aquaculture, 39 pp. + app.
96. Pohle, G., 2001. How recovery occurs naturally: benthic effects of fallowing and cessation of operations at a salmon farm in the Letang Inlet. Aquaculture physical remediation workshop, Gulf of Maine Council on the Marine Environment Aquaculture Committee, 20 September 2001, St. Andrews, New Brunswick.
97. Pohle, G., Frost, B., 1997. Establishment of standard benthic monitoring sites to assess long-term ecological modification and provide predictive sequence of benthic communities in the inner Bay of Fundy, New Brunswick. Atlantic Reference Centre, Huntsman Marine Science Centre, St. Andrews, NB, Canada, p. 119
98. Pohle, G., Frost, B., 1998. Monitoring and analysis of recovery of benthos from a heavily impacted salmon site: towards a predictive tool for the practice of cage fallowing. Final report to the New Brunswick Department of Fisheries and Aquaculture, 21 pp. + 2 appendices.
99. Pohle G., Frost B., and Findlay R. Assessment of regional benthic impact of salmon mariculture within the Letang Inlet, Bay of Fundy. J. Mar. Sci. 58 (2001) 417-426
100. Powell M.A., and Somero G.N. Adaptations to sulfide by hydrothermal vent animals: sites and mechanisms of detoxification and metabolism. Biol. Bull. 171 (1986) 274-290
101. Preisler A., de Beer D., Lichtschlag A., Lavik G., Boetius A., and Jørgensen B.B. Biological and chemical sulphide oxidation in a Beggiatoa inhabited marine sediment. Int. Soc. Micro. Ecol. 1 (2007) 341-353
102. Raffaelli D.G. The behavior of the nematode/copepod ratio in organic pollution studies. Mar. Environ. Res. 23 (1987) 135-152
103. Reimers C.E. An in situ microprofiling instrument for measuring interfacial pore water gradients: methods and oxygen profiles from the North Pacific Ocean. Deep-Sea Res. 34 (1987) 2019-2035
104. Revesbech N.P., Sørensen J., and Blackburn T.H. Distribution of oxygen in marine sediments measured with microelectrodes. Limnol. Oceanogr. 25 (1980) 403-411
105. Rhoads D.C., and Germano J.D. Characteristics of organism-sediment relations using sediment profile imaging: an efficient method for remote ecological monitoring of the sea floor (Remots™ System). Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 8 (1982) 115-118
106. Schaanning M.T., and Hansen P.K. The suitability of electrode measurements for assessment of benthic organic impact and their use in a management system for marine fish farms. In: Hargrave B.T. (Ed). Environmental Effects of Marine Finfish Aquaculture (2005), Springer, Berlin 381-408
107. Schwinghamer P. Influence of pollution along a natural gradient and in a mesocosm experiment on biomass-size-spectra of benthic communities. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 46 (1988) 199-206
108. Snelgrove P.V.R., and Butman C.A. Animal-sediment relationships revisited: cause vs. effect. Oceanogr. Mar. Biol. Ann. Rev. 32 (1994) 111-177
109. Sørensen J., and Jørgensen B.B. Early diagenesis in sediments from Danish coastal waters: microbial activity and Mn-Fe-S geochemistry. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 51 (1987) 1583-1590
110. Sundulli R., and De Nicola Giudici M. Effects of organic enrichment on meiofauna: a laboratory study. Mar. Poll. Bull. 20 (1989) 223-227
111. Sutherland, T.F., Levings, C.D., Petersen, S.A.,Sinclair, D., Jepps, S., Knight, J. Gillard, B., Knapp, W., McPhie, R., 2005. Data report on sediment properties and macrofauna communities collected at Sir Edmund Bay, British Columbia Can. Data Rep. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 1165, v + 21 p.
112. Sutherland, T.F., Levings, C.D., McPhie, R., Petersen, S.A., Knapp, W., 2006. A benthic study examining the relationship between sediment properties and faunal groups observed at Sir Edmund Bay, British Columbia Can. Tech. Rep. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 2631, vi + 49 p.
113. Sutherland T.F., Levings C.D., Petersen S.A., Poon P., and Piercy B. The use of meiofauna as an indicator of benthic organic enrichment associated with salmonid aquaculture. Mar. Poll. Bull. 54 (2007) 1249-1261
114. Thamdrup B. Bacterial manganese and iron reduction in aquatic sediments. Adv. Microb. Ecol. 16 (2000) 41-84
115. Theede H. Comparative studies on the influence of oxygen deficiency and hydrogen sulfide on marine bottom invertebrates. Neth. J. Sea Res. 7 (1973) 244-252
116. Theede H., Ponat A., Hiroki K., and Schliper C. Studies on the resistance of marine bottom invertebrates to oxygen-deficiency and hydrogen sulfide. Mar. Biol. 2 (1969) 325-337
117. Thermo Electron Corporation, 2003. Orion Silver/Sulfide Electrode Instruction Manual. Beverly, MA, p. 66.
118. 0 in coastal marine sediments. Limnol. Oceanogr. 35 (1989) 793-806
119. Tomassetti P., and Porrello S. Polychaetes as indicators of marine fish farm organic enrichment. Aquat. Int. 13 (2005) 109-128
120. Vismann B. Sulfide detoxification and tolerance in Nereis (Hediste) diversicolor and Nereis (Neanthes) virens (Annelida: Polychaeta). Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 59 (1990) 229-238
121. Warwick R.M. The nematode/copepod ratio and its use in pollution ecology. Mar. Poll. Bull. 12 (1981) 329-333
122. Warwick R.M. A new method for detecting pollution effects on marine macrobenthic communities. Mar. Biol. 92 (1986) 557-562
123. Warwick R.M. Detection of pollution effects on marine macrobenthos: further evaluation of the species abundance/biomass method. Mar. Biol. 95 (1987) 193-200
124. Weston D. Quantitative examination of macrobenthic community changes along an organic enrichment gradient. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 61 (1990) 233-244
125. Wildish D.J., and Pohle G.W. Benthic macrofaunal changes resulting from finfish mariculture. In: Hargrave B.T. (Ed). Environmental Effects of Marine Finfish Aquaculture (2005), Springer, Berlin 275-304
126. Wildish, D.J. Akagi, H., Hamilton, N., Hargrave, B.T., 1999. A recommended method for monitoring sediments to detect organic enrichment from mariculture in the Bay of Fundy. Can. Tech. Rep. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 2286, iii + 31 p.
127. Wildish D.J., Hargrave B.T., and Pohle G. Cost effective monitoring of organic enrichment resulting from salmon mariculture. J. Mar. Sci. 58 (2001) 469-476
128. Wildish D.J., Hughes-Clarke J.E., Pohle G.W., Hargrave B.T., and Mayer L.M. Acoustic detection of organic enrichment in sediments at a salmon farm is confirmed by independent groundtruthing methods. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 267 (2004) 99-105
129. Wildish, D.J., Pohle, G.W., Hargrave, B.T., Sutherland, T.F., Anderson, M.R., 2005. Benthic monitoring methods for habitat management of finfish mariculture in Canada. Research Document 2005/039, available online: http://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/csas/Csas/DocREC/2005/RES2005_039_e.pdf.
130. Wit R.D., Jonkers H.M., Van Den Ende F.P., and Van Gemerden H. In situ fluctuations of oxygen and sulfide in marine microbial sediment ecosystems. Neth. J. Sea Res. 23 (1989) 271-281
131. Zobell C.E. Studies on redox potential of marine sediments. Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geol. 30 (1946) 477-513