A critique of the "outcome test" in racial profiling research

Justice Quarterly

Volumn 25, Issue 1, 2008, Pages 1-36

  Engel, Robin S ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CINCINNATI   (United States)

Author keywords

Outcome test; Police bias; Racial profiling research; Search rates; Traffic stops

Indexed keywords

EID: 41549127545     PISSN: 07418825     EISSN: 17459109     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/07418820701717177     Document Type: Article

References (144)

1. Akehurst, L., Kohnken, G., Vrij, A., & Bull, R. (1996). Lay persons' and police officers' beliefs regarding deceptive behavior. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 10, 461-471.
2. Alpert Group. (2004). Miami-Dade police department racial profiling study. Retrieved 14 July 2006, from http://www.miamidade.gov/irp/Library/ MDPDpercent20Racialpercent20Profilingpercent20Study.pdf
3. Alpert, G. P., MacDonald, J. M., & Dunham, R. G. (2005). Police suspicion and discretionary decision making during citizen stops. Criminology, 43, 407-434.
4. Anwar, S., & Fang, H. (2006). An alternative test of racial prejudice in motor vehicle searches: Theory and evidence. American Economic Review, 96, 127-151.
5. Arrow, K. (1973). The theory of discrimination. In O. Ashenfelter & A. Rees (Eds.), Discrimination in labor markets. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
6. Ayres, I. (2001). Pervasive prejudice? Unconventional evidence of racial and gender discrimination. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
7. Ayres, I. (2002). Outcomes tests of racial disparities in police practices. Justice Research and Policy, 4, 131-142.
8. Ayres, I. (2005). Three tests for measuring unjustified disparate impacts in organ transplantation: The problem of 'included variable' bias. Perspectives in Biology and Medicine, 48, S68-S87.
9. Ayres, I., & Vars, F. E. (2000). Determinants of citations to articles in elite law review. Journal of Legal Studies, 29, 427.
10. Barlow, D. E., & Barlow, M. H. (2002). Racial profiling: A survey of African American police officers. Police Quarterly, 5, 334-358.
11. Becker, G. S. (1957). The economics of discrimination. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
12. Becker, G. S. (1971). The economics of discrimination (2nd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
13. Bernard, T. J., & Engel, R. S. (2001). Conceptualizing criminal justice theory. Justice Quarterly, 18, 1-30.
14. Bittner, E. (1970). The functions of police in modern society. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office.
15. Bolton, K. (2003). Shared perceptions: Black police officers discuss continuing barriers in policing. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 26, 386-399.
16. Borooah, V. K. (2001). Racial bias in police stops and searches: An economic analysis. European Journal of Political Economics, 17, 17-37.
17. Brooks, L. W. (2001). Police discretionary behavior: A study of style. In R. G. Dunham & G. P. Alpert (Eds.), Critical Issues in policing: Contemporary readings (4th ed., pp. 117-131) Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press.
18. Brown, M. F. (2001). Criminal investigation: Law and practice (2nd ed.). Boston, MA: Butterworth-Heinemann.
19. Brown, R., & Washton, R. (2002). The US African-American market. New York: Market Research.
20. Bushway, S. D., & Johnson, K. (2005). Extending outcome analysis to other criminal justice decisions: An example with bail. Paper presented at the 2005 Criminology and Economics Summer Workshop, University of Maryland, Elkridge, MD, June 6, 2005.
21. Butler, P. (1999). Starr is to Clinton as regular prosecutors are to Blacks. Boston College Law Review, 40, 705-716.
22. Calderon, T. R. (2000). Race-based policing from Terry to Wardlow: Steps down the totalitarian path. Howard Law Journal, 44, 73.
23. Cole, D. (1999). No equal justice: Race and class in the American criminal justice system. New York: TheNew Press.
24. Cole, D., & Lamberth, J. (2001, May 13). The fallacy of racial profiling. New York Times, section 4, p. 13.
25. Connors, E. F., & Nugent, H. (1990). Street-level narcotics enforcement. Washington, DC: US Bureau of Justice Assistance.
26. Cox, S. M., Pease, S. E., Miller, D. S., & Tyson, C. B. (2001). State of Connecticut 2000-2001 report of traffic stops statistics. Rocky Hill, CT: Division of Criminal Justice.
27. Davis, K. C. (1971). Discretionary justice: A preliminary inquiry. Chicago: University of Illinois Press.
28. Dodge, M., & Pogrebin, M. (2001). African American police women: An exploration of professional relationships. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 24, 550-562.
29. Dominitz, J. (2003). How do the laws of probability constrain legislative and judicial efforts to stop racial profiling? American Law and Economics Review, 5, 412-432.
30. Engel, R. S. (2000). The effects of supervisory styles on patrol officer behavior. Police Quarterly, 3, 262-293.
31. Engel, R. S. (2002). Patrol officer supervision in the community policing era. Journal of Criminal Justice, 30, 51-64.
32. Engel, R. S. (2003). Explaining suspects' resistance and disrespect toward police. Journal of Criminal Justice, 31, 475-492.
33. Engel, R. S. (2004). Arizona Department of Safety traffic stop data report, January 2003-December 2003. Report submitted to the US District Attorney's Office (District of Arizona) in the matter of U. S. v. Gayle and the Coconino County, Arizona Prosecutor's Office in the matter of Arizona v. Palacios.
34. Engel, R. S. (2005). Citizens' perceptions of procedural and distributive injustice during traffic stops with police. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 42, 445-481.
35. Engel, R. S., & Calnon, J. M. (2004a). Comparing benchmark methodologies for policecitizen contacts: traffic stop data collection for the Pennsylvania State Police. Police Quarterly, 7, 97-125.
36. Engel, R. S., & Calnon, J. M. (2004b). Examining the influence of drivers' characteristics during traffic stops with police: results from a national survey. Justice Quarterly, 21, 49-90.
37. Engel, R. S., Calnon, J. M., & Bernard, T. J. (2002). Theory and racial profiling: shortcomings and future directions in research. Justice Quarterly, 19, 201-225.
38. Engel, R. S., Calnon, J. M., Liu, L., & Johnson, R. R. (2004). Project on Police-Citizen Contacts, Year 1 Final Report. Report submitted to the Pennsylvania State Police, Harrisburg, PA.
39. Engel, R. S., Calnon, J. M., Tillyer, R., Johnson, R. R., Liu, L., & Wang, X. (2005). Project on police-citizen contacts, Year 2 final report. Submitted to the Pennsylvania State Police, Harrisburg, PA.
40. Engel, R. S., Frank, J., Tillyer, R., & Klahm, C. (2006). Cleveland Division of Police traffic stop study: Final report. Submitted to the City of Cleveland, Division of Police, Office of the Chief, Cleveland, OH.
41. Engel, R. S., & Johnson, R. (2006). Toward a better understanding of racial and ethnic disparities in search and seizure rates for state police agencies. Journal of Criminal Justice, 34, 605-617.
42. Engel, R. S., & Silver, E. (2001). Policing mentally disordered suspects: A reexamination of the criminalization hypothesis. Criminology, 39, 225-252.
43. Engel, R. S., Sobol, J. J., & Worden, R. E. (2000). Further exploration of the demeanor hypothesis: The interaction effects of suspect characteristics and demeanor on police behavior. Justice Quarterly, 17, 235-258.
44. Engel, R. S., Tillyer, R., & Cherkauskas, J. (2007). Understanding best search and seizure practices: Final report. Submitted to the Ohio State Highway Patrol, Office of the Superintendent, Columbus, OH.
45. Engel, R. S., & Worden, R. E. (2003). Police officers' attitudes, behavior, and supervisory influences: An analysis of problem solving. Criminology, 41, 131-166.
46. Fagan, J., & Davies, G. (2000). Street stops and broken windows: Terry, race, and disorder in New York City. Fordham Urban Law Journal, 28, 457-504.
47. Farrell, A., McDevitt, D. J., Bailey, L., Andresen, C., & Pierce, E. (2004) Massachusetts racial and gender profiling study. Retrieved 14 July 2006, from http://www.racial-profilinganalysis.neu.edu/IRJsite_docs/ finalreport.pdf
48. Farrell, A., McDevitt, D. J., Cronin, S., & Pierce, E. (2003) Rhode Island traffic stop statistics act: Final report. Boston: Northeastern University Institute on Race and Justice.
49. Foster, J. A. (1992). Narcotics interdiction at the street level. Law Enforcement Technology, 19, 20-21.
50. Fridell, L. A. (2004). By the numbers: A guide for analyzing race data from vehicle stops. Washington, DC: Police Executive Research Forum.
51. Fridell, L., Lunney, R., Diamond, D., & Kubu, B. (2001). Racially biased policing: A principled response. Washington, DC: Police Executive Research Forum.
52. Fugita, S., Hogrebe, M., & Wexley, K. (1980). Perceptions of deception: Perceived expertise in detecting deception, successfulness of deception and nonverbal cues. Personality äSocial Psychology Bulletin, 6, 637-643.
53. Fugita, S., Wexley, K., & Hillery, J. (1974). Black-white differences in nonverbal behavior in an interview setting. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 4, 343-350.
54. General Accounting Office. (2000). Better Targeting of Airline Passengers for Personal Searches Could Produce Better Results. Washington: Government Printing Office. [Available online at http://www.gao.gov/archive/2000/gg00038. pdf.]
55. Garratt, G. A., Baxter, J. C., & Rozelle, R. M. (1981). Training university police in Black-American nonverbal behaviors. The Journal of Social Psychology, 113, 217-229.
56. Garrett, B. (2001). Columbia Human Rights Law Review. Columbia Human Rights Law Review, 33, 41.
57. Gottfredson, M. R., & Gottfredson, D. M. (1988). Decision making in Criminal Justice: Toward the rational exercise of discretion (2nd ed.). New York: Plenum Press.
58. Grimming, R. H., & Burwitz, R. (1988). Illinois' development of a total drug interdiction program. The Police Chief, 54, 42-44.
59. Gross, S. R., & Barnes, K. Y. (2002). Road work: Racial profiling and drug interdiction on the highway. Michigan Law Review, 101, 651.
60. Hanushek, E. A., & Jackson, J. E. (1977). Statistical methods for social scientists. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
61. Harcourt, B. E. (2004). Rethinking racial profiling: A critique of the economics, civil liberties, and constitutional literature, and of criminal profiling more generally. University of Chicago Law Review, 71, 1275-1381.
62. Harman, A. (1993). State police drug team. Law and Order, 41, 81-85.
63. Harris, D. A. (1999). The stories, the statistics, and the law: Why "driving while black" matters. Minnesota Law Review, 84, 265-326.
64. Harris, D. A. (2001). When success breeds attack: the coming backlash against racial profiling studies. Michigan Journal of Race and Law, 6, 237.
65. Harris, D. A. (2002). Profiles in injustice: Why racial profiling cannot work. New York: The New Press.
66. Hecker, S. (1997). Race and pretextual traffic stops: An expanded role for civilian review boards. Columbia Human Rights Law Review, 28, 551-604.
67. Hernandez-Murillo, R., & Knowles, J. (2004). Racial profiling or racist policing? Bounds tests in aggregate data. International Economic Review, 45, 959-987.
68. Herszenhorn, D. M. (2000, October 22). Police and union chiefs meet to address racial profiling. New York Times, section 1, p. 41.
69. Ickes, W. (1984). Compositions in black and white: Determinants of interaction in interracial dyads. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 47, 497-512.
70. Inbau, F. E., Reid, J. E., & Buckley, J. B. (1986). Criminal interrogation and confessions. Baltimore, MD: Williams & Wilkins.
71. Kennedy, R. (1997). Race, crime, and the law. New York: Vintage Books.
72. Klinger, D. A. (1994). Demeanor or crime? Why "hostile" citizens are more likely to be arrested. Criminology, 32, 475-493.
73. Knowles, J., Persico, N., & Todd, P. (2001). Racial bias in motor vehicle searches: Theory and evidence. Journal of Political Economy, 109, 203-299.
74. LaFrance, M., & Mayo, C. (1976). Racial differences in gaze behavior during conversations: Two systematic observational studies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 33, 547-552.
75. LaFree, G. (1995). Race and crime trends in the United States, 1946-1990. In D. F. Hawkins (Ed.), Ethnicity, race, and crime: Perspectives across time and place (pp. 169-193). Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.
76. Lamberth, J. (1994). Revised statistical analysis of the incidence of police stops and arrests of black drivers/travelers on the New Jersey Turnpike between exits or interchanges 1 and 3 from the years 1988 through 1991. Unpublished report, Temple University.
77. Lamberth, J. (1996). A report to the ACLU. New York: American Civil Liberties Union.
78. Lange, J. E., Johnson, M. B., & Voas, R. B. (2005). Testing the racial profiling hypothesis for seemingly disparate traffic stops on the New Jersey turnpike. Justice Quarterly, 22, 193-223.
79. Lauritsen, J., & Sampson, R. J. (1998). Minorities, crime, and criminal justice. In M. Tonry (Ed.), The handbook of crime and punishment (pp. 58-84). New York: Oxford University Press.
80. Lersch, K., & Mieczkowski, T. (2000). An examination of the convergence and divergence of internal and external allegations of misconduct filed against police officers. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 23, 54-68.
81. Lockwood, D., Pottieger, A. E., & Inciardi, J. A. (1995). Crack use, crime by crack users, and ethnicity. In D. F. Hawkins (Ed.) Ethnicity, race, and crime: Perspectives across time and place (pp. 213-234). Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.
82. Lundman, R. J. (1994). Demeanor or crime? The midwest city police-citizen encounters study. Criminology, 32, 631-656.
83. Lundman, R. J. (1996). Extralegal variables and arrest. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 33, 349-353.
84. Lundman, R. J., & Kaufman, R. L. (2003). Driving while Black: Effects of race, ethnicity, and gender on citizen self-reports of traffic stops and police actions. Criminology, 41, 195-220.
85. Mastrofski, S. D., Snipes, J. B., Parks, R. B., & Maxwell, C. D. (2000). Helping hand of the law: Police control of citizens on request. Criminology, 38, 307-342.
86. Mastrofski, S. D., Worden, R. E., & Snipes, J. B. (1995). Law enforcement in a time of community policing. Criminology, 33, 539-563.
87. National Research Council. (2004). Fairness and effectiveness in Police: The evidence. Committee to Review Research on Police Policy and Practices, W. Skogan & K. Frydl (Eds.), Committee on Law and Justice, Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
88. Northeastern University's Racial Profiling Data Collection Resource Center. (2005). Retrieved 14 July 2006, from http://www.racialprofilinganalysis. neu.edu/index.php
89. Novak, K. J. (2004). Disparity and racial profiling in traffic enforcement. Police Quarterly, 7, 65-96.
90. Novak, K. J., Alarid, L. F., & Lucas, W. L. (2003). Exploring officers' acceptance of community policing: Implications for policy implementation. Journal of Criminal Justice, 31, 57-71.
91. Novak, K. S., & Engel, R. S. (2005). Disentangling the influence of suspects' demeanor and mental disorder on arrest. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 28, 493-512.
92. Novak, K. J., Frank, J., Smith, B. W., & Engel, R. S. (2002). Revisiting the decision to arrest: Comparing beat and community officers. Crime & Delinquency, 48, 70-98.
93. Packer, H. (1968). The limits of the criminal sanction. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
94. Paoline, E. A., Myers, S. M., & Worden, R. E. (2000). Police culture, individualism, and community policing: Evidence from two police departments. Justice Quarterly, 17, 575-605.
95. Persico, N., & Castleman, D. A. (2005). Detecting bias: Using statistical evidence to establish intentional discrimination in racial profiling cases. University of Chicago Legal Forum, 217-235.
96. Persico, N., & Todd, P. (2006). Generalising the hit rates test for racial bias in law enforcement, with an application to vehicle searches in Wichita. The Economic Journal, 116, F351-F367.
97. Reisig, M. D., McCluskey, J. D., Mastrofski, S. D., & Terrill, W. (2004). Suspect disrespect toward the police. Justice Quarterly, 21, 241-268.
98. Remmington, F. (1990). Development of criminal justice as an academic field. Journal of Criminal Justice Education, 1, 9-20.
99. Remsberg, C. (1997). Tactics for criminal patrol: Vehicle stops, drug discovery, and officer survival. Northbrook, IL: Calibre Press.
100. Riksheim, E. C., & Chermak, S. M. (1993). Causes of police behavior revisited. Journal of Criminal Justice, 21, 353-382.
101. Rojek, J., Rosenfeld, R., & Decker, S. (2004). The influence of drivers' race on traffic stops in Missouri. Police Quarterly, 7, 126-147.
102. Rudovsky, D. (2001). Law enforcement by stereotypes and serendipity: Racial profiling and stops and searches without cause. University of Pennsylvania Journal of Constitutional Law, 3, 296.
103. Sherman, L. W. (1980). Causes of police behavior: The current state of quantitative research. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 17, 69-100.
104. Smith, A. (1983). Nonverbal communication among black female dyads: An assessment of intimacy, gender, and race. Journal of Social Issues, 39, 55-67.
105. Smith, B. W., & Holmes, M. D. (2003). Community accountability, minority threat, and police brutality: An examination of civil rights criminal complaints. Criminology, 41, 1035-1063.
106. Smith, M. R., & Alpert, G. P. (2002). Searching for direction: Courts, social science, and the adjudication of racial profiling cases. Justice Quarterly, 19, 673-704.
107. Smith, M. R., Makarios, M., & Alpert, G. P. (2006). Differential suspicion: Theory specification and gender effects in the traffic stop context. Justice Quarterly, 23, 271-295.
108. Smith, M. R., & Petrocelli, M. (2001). Racial profiling? A multivariate analysis of police traffic stop data. Police Quarterly, 4, 4-27.
109. Smith, W. R., Tomaskovic-Devey, D., Zingraff, M. T., Mason, H. M., Warren, P. Y., & Wright, C. P. (2003). The North Carolina highway traffic study. Raleigh, NC: North Carolina State University.
110. Solop, F. I. (2004a). Comparative statistical analysis of 1-17 stop data and 1-17 violator data: Yavapai County, Arizona. Unpublished manuscript, Flagstaff, AZ.
111. Solop, F. I. (2004b). Statistical analysis of 1-40 stop data and 1-40 violator data: Coconino County, Arizona. Unpublished manuscript, Flagstaff, AZ.
112. Spitzer, E. (1999). The New York City Police Department's "stop and frisk" practices: A report to the people of the state of New York from the Office of the Attorney General. Albany, NY: New York Attorney General's Office.
113. Stromwall, L., & Granhag, P. (2003). How to detect deception: Arresting the beliefs of police officers, prosecutors and judges. Psychology, Crime &Law, 9, 19-36.
114. Terrill, W., & Mastrofski, S. D. (2002). Situational and officer-based determinants of police coercion. Justice Quarterly, 19, 215-248.
115. Thacher, D. (2002). From racial profiling to racial inequality: Rethinking equity in police stops and searches. Working paper, Ford School of Public Policy, University of Michigan.
116. Tomaskovic-Devey, D., Mason, M., & Zingraff, M. (2004). Looking for the driving while black phenomena: Conceptualizing racial bias processes and their associated distributions. Police Quarterly, 7, 3-29.
117. Trende, S. P. (2000). Why modest proposals offer the best solution for combating racial profiling. Duke Law Journal, 50, 331-380.
118. Tyler, T. (1990). Why people obey the law. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
119. Tyler, T., Boeckmann, R. J., Smith, H. J., & Huo, Y. J. (1997). Social justice in a diverse society. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
120. Vrij, A., Dragt, A., & Koppelaar, L. (1992). Interviews with ethnic interviewees: Nonverbal communication errors in impression formation. Journal of Community and Applied Social Psychology, 2, 199-208.
121. Vrij, A., & Semin, G. R. (1996). Lie experts' beliefs about nonverbal indicators of deception. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 20, 65-80.
122. Vrij, A., & Winkel, F. W. (1991). Cultural patterns in Dutch and Surinam nonverbal behavior: An analysis of simulated police citizen encounters. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 5, 169-184.
123. Walker, S. (1992). Origins of the contemporary criminal justice paradigm: The American Bar Foundation survey, 1953-1969. Justice Quarterly, 9, 47-76.
124. Walker, S. (2001). Searching for the denominator: Problems with police traffic stop data and an early warning system solution. Justice Research and Policy, 3, 63-95.
125. Weatherspoon, F. D. (2004). Racial profiling of African-American males: Stopped, searched, and stripped of constitutional protection. John Marshall Law Review, 38, 439-468.
126. Weisburd, D., Greenspan, R., Edwin, E., Hamilton, E., Williams, H., & Bryant, K. (2000). Police attitudes toward abuse of authority: Findings from a national study. Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice.
127. Winkel, F. W., & Vrij, A. (1990). Interaction and impression formation in a cross-cultural dyad: Frequency and meaning of culturally determined gaze behavior in a police interview setting. Social Behavior, 5, 335-350.
128. Worden, R. E., & Shepard, R. L. (1996). Demeanor, crime, and police behavior: A reexamination of the Police Services Study data. Criminology, 34, 83-105.
129. Anderson v. Cornejo, 355 F.3d 1021 (7th Cir. 2004).
130. Castaneda v. Partida, 430 US 482 (1977).
131. Chavez v. Illinois State Police, 251 F.3d 612 (2001).
132. Harris v. City of Virginia Beach, 11 Fed. Appx. 212 (4th Cir. 2001).
133. State of Minnesota v. Matthews, WL 31164579 (2002).
134. Turner et al. v. Fouche et al., 396 US 346 (1970).
135. US v. Alcaraz-Arellano, 302 F. Supp. 2d 1217 (2004).
136. US v. Armstrong, 517 US 456 (1996).
137. US US v. Barlow, 310 F.3d 1007 (2002).
138. US v. Duque Nava, 315 F. Supp. 2d 1144 (2004).
139. US v. Hare, 308 F. Supp. 2d 955 (2004).
140. US v. Lindsey, 288 F. Supp. 2d 1196 (2003).
141. US v. Mesa-Roche, 288 F. Supp. 2d 1172 (2003).
142. US v. Parada, 289 F. Supp. 2d 1291 (2003).
143. US v. Stanley, #02-410-22-02-SAC (2003).
144. Wo v. Hopkins, 118 US 356 (1886).