Genetically engineered salmon, ecological risk, and environmental policy

Bulletin of Marine Science

Volumn 74, Issue 3, 2004, Pages 509-528

  Kelso, Dennis Doyle Takahashi ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AQUACULTURE; ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY; FISHERY MANAGEMENT; FISHERY REGULATION; GENETICALLY MODIFIED ORGANISM; RISK ASSESSMENT; SALMONID;

PISCES; SALMONIDAE;

EID: 4143072558     PISSN: 00074977     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Conference Paper

References (82)

1. Abrahams, M. R. and A. Sutterlin. 1999. The foraging and antipredator behaviour of growth-enhanced transgenic Atlantic salmon. Anim. Behav. 58: 933-942.
2. Amos, K. H. and A. Appleby. 1999. Atlantic salmon in Washington state: a fish management perspective. Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife, Olympia, Washington. 〈http://www.wdfw.wa.gov/fish.atlantic/manage/ htm#manage〉, 11 May 2004.
3. Atlantic Salmon Watch Program. Undated. BC reported escapes from aquaculture facilities. Fisheries and Oceans Canada, Pacific Region. Nanaimo, British Columbia. 〈http://www.pac.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/sci/aqua/ASWP/Atl_escapes. PDF〉, 25 November 2003.
4. Bartlett, M. J. and M. Colligan. 2001. Letter to Charles Eirkson [sic], U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Center for Veterinary Medicine. National Marine Fisheries Service, Gloucester, Massachusetts, and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Concord, New Hampshire.
5. Bisbee, D. W. 1993. Preparing for a blue revolution: regulating the environmental release of transgenic fish. Va. Environ. Law J. 12: 625-690.
6. British Columbia Salmon Farmers Association. 2000. B.C. salmon farmers reinforce stance against "transgenics." B.C. Salmon Farmers Association, Campbell River, British Columbia. 〈http://www.salmonfarmers. org/media/2000/3-1-00.html〉, 31 March 2000.
7. _. 2002. Industry Snapshot 2000. B.C. Salmon Farmers Association, Campbell River, British Columbia. 〈http://www.salmonfarmers.org/industry/ 2000.html〉, 5 October 2002.
8. _. Undated a. Atlantic salmon. B.C. Salmon Farmers Association, Campbell River, British Columbia. 〈http://www.salmonfarmers.org/industry/farm. html#farm3〉, 3 November 2003.
9. _. Undated b. Environmental stewardship: farm siting/escape prevention. 〈http://www.salmonfarmers.org/pdfs/bcsfafactsheetenvironmentalstewardship. pdf〉, 1 December 2003.
10. Brodeur, R. D. and M. S. Busby. 1998. Occurrence of an Atlantic salmon Salmo salar in the Bering Sea. Alaska Fish. Res. Bull. 5: 64-66.
11. CEQ/OSTP (Council on Environmental Quality/Office of Science and Technology Policy). 2001. CEQ and OSTP assessment: case studies of environmental regulation for biotechnology. Council on Environmental Quality and Office of Science and Technology Policy, Washington, D.C. 10 p.
12. Devlin, R. H., C. A. Biagi, T. Y. Yesaki, D. E. Smailus, and J. C. Byatt. 2001. Growth of domesticated transgenic fish - a growth-hormone transgene boosts the size of wild but not domesticated trout. Nature 409: 781-782.
13. _ and E. M. Donaldson. 1992. Containment of genetically altered fish with emphasis on salmonids. Pages 229-265 in C. L. Hew and G. L. Fletcher, eds. Transgenic fish. World Scientific, Singapore.
14. _, J. I. Johnsson, D. E. Smailus, C. A. Biagi, E. Jönsson, and B. T. Björnsson. 1999. Increased ability to compete for food by growth hormone-transgenic coho salmon Oncorhynchus kisutch (Walbaum). Aquacult. Res. 30: 479-482.
15. _, T. Y. Yesaki, C. A. Biagi, E. M. Donaldson, P. Swanson, and W.-K. Chan. 1994. Extraordinary salmon growth. Nature 371: 209-210.
16. Donaldson, E. M., R. H. Devlin, I. I. Solar, and F. Piferrer. 1993. The reproductive containment of genetically altered salmonids. Pages 113-129 in J. G. Cloud and G. H. Thorgaard, eds. Genetic conservation of salmonid fishes. Plenum Press, New York.
17. Einum, S. and I. A. Fleming. 1997. Genetic divergence and interactions in the wild among native, farmed and hybrid Atlantic salmon. J. Fish Biol. 50: 634-651.
18. Entis, E. 1997. Aquabiotech: a blue revolution? World Aquacult. 28: 12-15.
19. _. 1999. Presentation for technical session: genetically engineered advances in aquaculture: reshaping America's seafood supply. San Francisco Seafood Show, San Francisco.
20. FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations). 2003. Yearbooks of fishery statistics: summary tables - 2001. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome. 〈http://www.fao.org/fi/statist/ summtab/default.asp〉, 10 November 2003.
21. Farrington, C. 2003. Alaska salmon enhancement program 2002 annual report. Report no. 5J03-05. Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Division of Commercial Fisheries, Juneau, Alaska.
22. Fleming, I. A., K. Hindar, I. B. Mjølnerød, B. Jonsson, T. Balstad, and A. Lamberg. 2000. Lifetime success and interactions of farm salmon invading a native population. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. Ser. B Biol. Sci. 267: 1517-1523.
23. Fletcher, G. L., P. L. Davies, and C. L. Hew. 1992. Genetic engineering of freeze-resistant Atlantic salmon. Pages 190-208 in C. L. Hew and G. L. Fletcher, eds. Transgenic fish. World Scientific, Singapore.
24. _, S. V. Goddard, and C. L. Hew. 2000. Current status of transgenic Atlantic salmon for aquaculture. Pages 179-184 in C. Fairbairn, G. Scoles, and A. McHughen, eds. Proceedings of the 6th International Symposium on the Biosafety of Genetically Modified Organisms, July 2000, Saskatoon, Canada. University Extension Press, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan.
25. Gaudet, D. and F. Rue. 2002. Atlantic salmon: a white paper (March 5, 2002 revision). Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Juneau, Alaska. 13 p.
26. Gorski, R. P. 1993. The one that got away: an analysis of federal regulation of the release of genetically engineered fish. Univ. Balt. J. Environ. Law 3: 1.
27. Hallerman, E. M. and A. R. Kapuscinski. 1992. Ecological and regulatory uncertainties associated with transgenic fish. Pages 209-228 in C. L. Hew and G. L. Fletcher, eds. Transgenic fish. World Scientific, Singapore.
28. Harvey, D. J. 2002. Aquaculture outlook. Report no. LDP-AQS/15/March 6. Economic Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. 20 p.
29. Hew, C. L. and G. L. I. Fletcher. 1996. Transgenic salmonid fish expressing exogenous salmonid growth hormone. United States Patent and Trademark Office, patent #5,545,808.
30. ICES Working Group on North Atlantic Salmon. 2002. Atlantic salmon in the North Pacific area. International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES), Copenhagen. 〈http://www.ices.dk/reports/ACFM/2002/WGNAS/ Atlantic%20Salmon%20in%20the%20North%20Atlantic%20area.pdf〉, 25 November 2003.
31. Isaksson, A. 1991. Culture of Atlantic salmon. Pages 85-130 in R. R. Stickney, ed. Culture of salmonid fishes. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida.
32. International Salmon Farmers' Association. 1998. World farmed salmon supply/demand review. International Salmon Farmers'Association, Hobart, Tasmania. 106 p.
33. _. 2000. Facsimile transmission from ISFA official Scott Parnham to Rodrigo Infante, head of a Chilean salmon-farming trade organization, summarizing development of ISFA's policy on genetically modified salmon. International Salmon Farmers' Association, Hobart, Tasmania. 1 p.
34. ISEES (Institute for Social, Economic and Ecological Sustainability). 2002. Safety first: making it a reality for biotechnology products. University of Minnesota, Institute for Social, Economic and Ecological Sustainability, St. Paul, Minnesota.
35. Kapuscinski, A. R. 1995. Implications of introduction of transgenic fish into natural ecosystems. Pages 43-61 in Environmental impacts of aquatic biotechnology. Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development, Paris.
36. _. 2002. Controversies in designing useful ecological assessments of genetically engineered organisms. Pages 385-415 in D. K. Letourneau and B. E. Burrows, eds. Genetically engineered organisms: assessing environmental and human health effects. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida.
37. _ and E. M. Hallerman. 1991. Implications of introduction of transgenic fish into natural ecosystems. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 48(Suppl. 1): 99-107.
38. _ and _. 1994. Benefits, environmental risks, social concerns, and policy implications of biotechnology in aquaculture. Office of Technology Assessment, Washington, D.C. (publication available from the National Technical Information Service, Springfield, Virginia). 86 p.
39. _, T. Nega, and E. M. Hallerman. 1999. Adaptive biosafety assessment and management regimes for aquatic genetically modified organisms in the environment. Pages 225-251 in R. S. V. Pullin, D. M. Bartley, and J. Kooiman, eds. Towards policies for conservation and sustainable use of aquatic genetic resources. International Center for Living Aquatic Resources Management, Makati, Philippines.
40. Kenney, E. A. 1996. The current status and future outlook of global salmon markets: implications for Canadian salmon farmers. Seafood and Marine Products Sector, Agriculture Canada, and British Columbia Salmon Farmers Association, Ottawa, Ontario. 106 p.
41. Mangel, M. 2000. Irreducible uncertainties, sustainable fisheries and marine reserves. Evol. Ecol. Res. 2: 547-557.
42. _, L. M. Talbot, G. K. Meffe, M. T. Agardy, D. L. Alverson, J. Barlow, D. B. Botkin, G. Budowski, T. Clark, J. Cooke, R. H. Crozier, P. K. Dayton, D. L. Elder, C. W. Fowler, S. Funtowicz, J. Giske, R. J. Hofman, S. J. Holt, S. R. Kellert, L. A. Kimball, D. Ludwig, K. Magnusson, B. S. Malayang, C. Mann, E. A. Norse, S. P. Northridge, W. F. Perrin, C. Perrings, R. M. Peterman, G. B. Rabb, H. A. Regier, J. E. Reynolds, K. Sherman, M. P. Sissenwine,T. D. Smith, A. Starfield, R. J. Taylor, M. F. Tillman, C. Toft, J. R. Twiss, J. Wilen, and T. P Young. 1996. Principles for the conservation of wild living resources. Ecol. Appl. 6: 338-362.
43. Matheson, J. 2000. Questions and answers about transgenic fish, 22 February 2000 ed. Office of Surveillance and Compliance, Center for Veterinary Medicine, Food and Drug Administration, Rockville, Maryland. 〈http://www.fda.gov/cvm/index/consumer/transgen.htm〉, 11 May 2004.
44. McEvoy, A. F. 1986. The fisherman's problem: ecology and law in the California fisheries, 1850-1980. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, U.K. 368 p.
45. McGonigle, J. 1998. Presentation during panel on environmental sustainability. Northeast Aquaculture Conference and Exposition, Rockport, Maine.
46. McKinnell, S. and A. J. Thomson. 1997. Recent events concerning Atlantic salmon escapees in the Pacific. ICES J. Mar. Sci. 54: 1221-1225.
47. Ministry of Agriculture, Food, and Fisheries. Undated a. Aquaculture statistics. Government of British Columbia, Victoria, British Columbia. 〈http://www.agf.gov.be.ca/fish_stats/statistics-aqua.htm〉, 26 November 2003.
48. _. Undated b. Marine escape statistics. Government of British Columbia, Victoria, British Columbia. 〈http://www.agf.gov.bc.ca/fisheries/escape/ escape_reports.htm〉, 25 November 2003.
49. Monahan, R. L. 1993. An overview of salmon aquaculture. Pages 1-9 in K. Heen, R. L. Monahan, and F. Utter, eds. Salmon aquaculture. Halsted Press, New York.
50. Muir, W. M. and R. D. Howard. 1999. Possible ecological risks of transgenic organism release when transgenes affect mating success: sexual selection and the Trojan gene hypothesis. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 96: 13853-13856.
51. _ and _. 2001. Fitness components and ecological risk of transgenic release: a model using Japanese medaka (Oryzias latipes). Amer. Nat. 158: 1-16.
52. _ and _. 2002a. Assessment of possible ecological risks and hazards of transgenic fish with implications for other sexually reproducing organisms. Transgenic Res. 11: 101-114.
53. _ and _. 2002b. Methods to assess ecological risks of transgenic fish releases. Pages 355-384 in D. K. Letourneau and B. E. Burrows, eds. Genetically engineered organisms: assessing environmental and human health effects. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida.
54. Nash, C. E. 2001. The net-pen salmon farming industry in the Pacific Northwest. NOAA Tech. Memorandum, NMFS-NWFSC-49. U.S. Department of Commerce, Springfield, Virginia. 125 p.
55. National Research Council. 1996. Upstream: salmon and society in the Pacific Northwest. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C. 452 p.
56. _. 2002. Animal biotechnology: science-based concerns. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C. 160 p.
57. NMFS (National Marine Fisheries Service). 1992. World salmon culture. U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Marine Fisheries Service, Silver Spring, Maryland. 323 p.
58. Pimm, S. L. 1991. The balance of nature? Ecological issues in the conservation of species and communities. University of Chicago Press, Chicago. 434 p.
59. Pollution Control Hearings Board. 1997. Marine Environmental Consortium, Washington Environmental Council, Protect Our Waters and Environmental Resources, and Washington Trout, appellants, v. State of Washington, Department of Ecology and Department of Fish & Wildlife, respondents, and Global Aqua-USA L.L.C., Scan-Am Fish Farms, permittees. First order on summary judgment. Pollution Control Hearings Board, State of Washington, Olympia, Washington. 33 p. 〈http://www.eho.wa.gov/searchdocuments/1997%20archive/ pchb%2096-257%20summary%20judgment.htm〉, 1 December 2003.
60. _. 1998. Marine Environmental Consortium, Washington Environmental Council, Protect Our Waters and Environmental Resources, and Washington Trout, appellants v. State of Washington, Department of Ecology and Department of Fish & Wildlife, respondents, and Global Aqua-USA L.L.C., and Cypress Island, Inc., permittees. Final findings of fact, conclusions of law and order. Pollution Control Hearings Board, State of Washington, Olympia, Washington. 48 p. 〈http://www.eho.wa.gov/searchdocuments/1998%20archive/pchb%2096- 257%20final.htm〉, 1 December 2003.
61. _. 1999. Marine Environmental Consortium, Washington Environmental Council, Protect Our Waters and Environmental Resources, and Washington Trout, appellants v. State of Washington, Department of Ecology, Global Aqua-USA L.L.C., and Cypress Island, Inc., respondents. Order granting reconsideration amending final findings of fact, conclusions of law and order. Pollution Control Hearings Board, State of Washington, Olympia, Washington. 7 p. 〉http://www.eho.wa.gov/searchdocuments/1999%20archive/pchb%2096- 257%20reconsideration.htm〉, 1 December 2003.
62. PriceWaterhouseCoopers. 2002. Net results: northern aquaculture statistics 2001 - the year in review.2p. 〈http://www.pwc.com/extweb/ ncsurvres.nsf/0cc1191c627d157d8525650600609c03/f3684cce155d875d85256c210067adle/ $FILE/nr_02.pdf〉, 9 November 2003.
63. Regal, P. J. 1993. The true meaning of "exotic species" as a model for genetically engineered organisms. Experientia 49: 225-234.
64. _. 1994. Scientific principles for ecologically based risk assessment of transgenic organisms. Mol. Ecol. 3: 5-13.
65. Saperstein, R. 1990. The monkey's paw: regulating genetically engineered organisms. Wash. Law Rev. 66: 247.
66. Scientists' Working Group on Biosafety. 1998. Manual for assessing ecological and human health effects of genetically engineered organisms. The Edmonds Institute, Edmonds, Washington. 158 p.
67. Starke, A. M. 2000. Super salmon: the wave of the future? Atlantic salmon that looks and tastes like regular fish, but tweaked genes make it grow faster. The Oregonian, Portland, Oregon, 26 September 2000. p. FD01.
68. Statistics Canada. Undated. Aquaculture production statistics. Agriculture Division, Statistics Canada, Government of Canada. Ottawa, Ontario. 〈http://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/communic/statistics/aquacult/Aqua_E.htm〉, 26 November 2003.
69. Stickney, R. R., ed. 1991. Culture of salmonid fishes. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida. 189 p.
70. Sutterlin, A., G. Fletcher, C. Hew, and T. Benfey. 1996. Environmental risks in using GH transgenic Atlantic salmon and rainbow trout for commercial marine production in Canada. Paper presented at 1996 Biotechnology Risk Assessment Research Symposium, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, 24-26 June 1996. 〈http://www.isb.vt.edu/brarg/brasym96/sutterlin96.htm〉, 28 October 2003.
71. Thomson, A. J. and J. R. Candy. 1999. Conference presentation: the abundance, distribution and biology of Atlantic salmon in the North Pacific, 1991-1998. Aquaculture Canada '99, Victoria, British Columbia.
72. Tiedje, J. M., R. K. Colwell, Y. L. Grossman, R. E. Hudson, R. E. Lenski, R. N. Mack, and P. J. Regal. 1989. The planned introduction of genetically engineered organisms: ecological considerations and recommendations. Ecology 70: 298-315.
73. Utter, F., K. Hindar, and N. Ryman. 1993. Genetic effects of aquaculture on natural salmon populations. Pages 144-165 in K. Heen, R. L. Monahan, and F Utter, eds. Salmon aquaculture. Halsted Press, New York.
74. Volpe, J. P., E. B. Taylor, D. W. Rimmer, and B. W. Glickman. 2000. Evidence of natural reproduction of aquaculture-escaped Atlantic salmon in a coastal British Columbia river. Conserv. Biol. 14: 899-903.
75. _, B. R. Anholt and B. W. Glickman. 2001. Competition among juvenile Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) and steelhead (Oncorhynchus mykiss): relevance to invasion potential in British Columbia. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 58: 197-207.
76. Waknitz, F. W., T. J. Tynan, C. E. Nash, R. N. Iwamoto, and L. G. Rutter. 2002. Review of potential impacts of Atlantic salmon culture on Puget Sound chinook salmon and Hood Canal summer-run chum salmon evolutionarily significant units. NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-NWFSC-53. U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Springfield, Virginia. 83 p.
77. Washington Agricultural Statistics Service. Undated. Washington 2001 annual bulletin. Washington State Department of Agriculture and National Agricultural Statistics Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Olympia, Washington. 138 p. Available at 〈http://www.nass.usda.gov/wa/annual01/ aqua01.pdf〉, 26 November 2003.
78. Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife. 2001. Fact Sheet: Atlantic salmon in Washington State. Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife, Olympia, Washington. 〈http://www.wa.gov/wdfw/factshts/atlanticsalmon.htm〉, 25 November 2003.
79. _. 2002. Salmon hatcheries. Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife, Hatcheries Program, Olympia, Washington. 〈http://www.wa.gov/wdfw/hat/ overview.htm〉, 1 June 2003.
80. _. 2003. News release, 18 July 2003: state biologists and commercial hatchery working to remove Atlantic salmon from Scatter Creek. Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife, Olympia, Washington. 〈http://www.wa.gov/ wdfw/do/new-real/jul1803a.htm〉, 11 November 2003.
81. _. Undated. Commercial production of Atlantic salmon, escapes and recoveries in Washington State. State of Washington, Olympia, Washington. 〈http://www.wa.gov/wdfw/fish/atlantic/comcatch.htm〉, 15 March 2003.
82. Whoriskey, F. 2001. Causes of the escape of farmed Atlantic salmon from sea cages in British Columbia and North America. Working Paper 01/09. North Atlantic Salmon Working Group, International Council for the Exploration of the Sea, Copenhagen.