Diurnality and nocturnality in nonhuman primates: Comparative chronobiological studies in laboratory and nature

Biological Rhythm Research

Volumn 39, Issue 3, 2008, Pages 229-267

  Erkert, Hans G ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF TÜBINGEN   (Germany)

Author keywords

Activity patterns; Cathemerality; Circadian rhythms; Light masking; Lunar periodicity; Phase response; Photic and nonphotic entrainment; Prosimian and anthropoid primates

Indexed keywords

BIOLOGICAL RHYTHM; CAPTIVE POPULATION; DIURNAL ACTIVITY; ECOTYPE; LABORATORY METHOD; NOCTURNAL ACTIVITY; PERIODICITY; PRIMATE; WILD POPULATION;

ARGENTINA; ARTICLE; CATHEMERAL ANIMAL; CHRONOBIOLOGY; CIRCADIAN RHYTHM; COMPARATIVE STUDY; DIURNAL ANIMAL; ENVIRONMENTAL FACTOR; EULEMUR FULVUS ALBIFRONS; EULEMUR FULVUS RUFUS; EVALUATION; INFORMATION PROCESSING; LABORATORY; LUMINANCE; MASKING; MONKEY; NATURAL SCIENCE; NOCTURNAL ANIMAL; NONHUMAN; PRIMATE; PROPITHECUS VERREAUXI; PROSIMIAN; SPIDER MONKEY;

AOTUS (PRIMATE); AOTUS AZARAI; AOTUS TRIVIRGATUS; EULEMUR; EULEMUR FULVUS ALBIFRONS; EULEMUR FULVUS RUFUS; LEMURIDAE; PRIMATES; PROPITHECUS; PROPITHECUS VERREAUXI; SIMIIFORMES; STREPSIRHINI;

EID: 40449096867     PISSN: 09291016     EISSN: 17444179     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/09291010701683391     Document Type: Article

References (138)

1. Albers HE, Lydic R, Gander PH. 1982. Gradual decay of circdadian drinking organization following lesions of the suprachiasmatic nuclei in primates. Neuros Lett. 27:119-124.
2. Albers HE, Lydic R, Moore-Ede MC. 1984a. Role of the suprachiasmatic nuclei in the circadian timing system of the squirrel monkey. I. The generation of rhythmicity. Brain Res. 300:275-284.
3. Albers HE, Lydic R, Moore-Ede MC. 1984b. Role of the suprachiasmatic nuclei in the circadian timing system of the squirrel monkey. II. Light-dark cycle entrainment. Brain Res. 300:285-293.
4. Arditi SI. 1992. Variaciones estacionales en la actividad y dieta de Aotus azarai y Alouatta caraya en Formosa, Argentina. Boletin Primatológico Latinoamericano. 3:11-30.
5. Aschoff J. 1964. Die Tagesperiodik licht- und dunkelaktiver Tiere. Rev Susse Zool. 71:528-558.
6. Aschoff J. 1979. Circadian rhythms:influences of internal and external factors on the period measured in constant conditions. Z Tierpsychol. 49:225-249.
7. Aschoff J, Daan S, Honma K-I. 1982. Vertebrate circadian systems - structure and physiology. New York: Springer-Verlag, Heidelberg. Zeitgebers, entrainment, and masking:some unsettled questions. p. 13-24.
8. Aschoff J, Tokura H. 1986. Circadian activity rhythms in squirrel monkeys:entrainment by temperature cycles. J Biol Rhythms. 2:91-99.
9. Aschoff J, von Goetz C. 1986. Effects of feeding cycles on circadian rhythms in squirrel monkeys. J Biol Rhythms. 1:267-276.
10. Bonney RC, Dixson AF, Fleming D. 1980. Plasma concentration of oestradiol-17β, oestrone, progesterone and testosterone during ovarian cycle of the owl monkey (Aotus trivirgatus). J Reprod Fert. 60:101-107.
11. Boulos Z, Frim DM, Dewey LK, Moore-Ede MC. 1989. Effects of feeding schedules on circadian organization in squirrel monkeys. Physiol Behav. 45:507-515.
12. Boulos Z, Machi M, Terman M. 1996. Effects of twilights on circadian entrainment patterns and reentrainment rates in squirrel monkeys. J Comp Physiol A. 179:687-694.
13. Caldelas I, Poirel V-J, Sicard B, Pevet P, Challet E. 2003. Circadian profile and photic regulation of clock genes in the suprachiasmatic nucleus of a diurnal mammal (Arvicanthus ansorgei). Neuroscience 116:583-591.
14. Charles-Dominique P. 1975. Phylogeny of primates. New York: Plenum Press. p. 69-90. Nocturnality and diurnality. An ecological interptetation of these two modes of life by an analysis of the higher vertebrate fauna in tropical forest ecosystems.
15. Colguhoun IC. 1998. Cathemeral behaviour of Eulemur macaco macaco at Ambato Massif, Madagascar. Folia Primatol. 69:22-34.
16. Costa MSMO, Moreira LF, Alones V, Lu J, Santee UR, Cavalcante JS, Moraes PRA, Britto LRG, Menaker M. 1998. Characterization of the circadian system of monkey (Callithrix jacchus):Immunohistochemical analysis and retinal projections. Biol Rhytm Res. 29:510-520.
17. Crompton AW, Taylor CR, Jagger JA. 1978. Evolution of homeothermy in mammals. Nature. 272:333-336.
18. Curtis DJ, Zaramody A, Martin RD. 1999. Cathemerality in the mongoose lemur, Eulemur mongoz. Am J Primatol. 47:279-298.
19. Curtis DJ, Rasmussen MA. 2006. The evolution of cathemerality in primates and other mammals:a comparative and chronoecological approach. Folia Primatol. 77:178-193.
20. Curtis DJ, Zaramody A, Martin D. 1999. Cathemerality in the mongoose lemur, Eulemur mongoz. Am J Primatol. 47:279-298.
21. Daan S. 2000. Colin Pittendrigh, Jürgen Aschoff, and the natural entrainment of circadian systems. J Biol Rhythms. 15:195-207.
22. Daan S, Albrecht U, van der Horst GT, Illnerova H, Roenneberg T, Wehr TA, Schwartz WJ. 2001. Assembling a clock for all seasons:are there M and E oscillators in the genes? J Biol Rhythms. 16:105-116.
23. DeCoursey PJ. 2003. Chronobiology: Biological timekeeping. Sunderland (MA): Sinauer Associates, Inc.. p. 144-178. The behavioral ecology and evolution of biological timing systems.
24. DeCoursey PJ. 2004. Diversity of function of SCN pacemakers in behavior and ecology of three species of sciurid rodents. Biol Rhythm Res. 35:13-33.
25. DeCoursey PJ, DeCoursey G. 1964. Adaptive aspects of activity rhythms in bats. Biol Bull. 126:14-27.
26. De la Iglesia HO, Meyer J, Carpino A, Jr., Schwartz WJ. 2000. Antiphase oscillation of the left and right suprachiasmatic nuclei. Science. 290:799-801.
27. Doerrscheidt GJ, Beck L. 1975. Advanced method for evaluating characteristic parameters (tau, alpha, rho) of circadian rhythms. J Math Biol. 2:107-121.
28. Donati G, Borgognini-Tarli SM. 2006. Influence of abiotic factors on cathemeral activity: a case of Eulemur fulvus collaris in the littoral forest of Madagascar. Folia Primatol. 77:104-122.
29. Donati G, Lunardini A, Kappeler PM, Borgonini Tarli S. 2001. Nocturnal activity in the cathemeral red-fronted lemur (Eulemur fulvus rufus), with observations during a lunar eclipse. Am J Primatol. 53:69-78.
30. Edgar DM, Dement WC, Fuller CA. 1993. Effects of SCN lesions on sleep in squirrel monkeys:Evidence for opponent processes in sleep-wake regulation. J Neurosci. 13:1065-1079.
31. Erkert HG. 1974. Der Einfluss des Mondlichtes auf die Aktivitaetsperiodik nachtaktiver Saeugetiere. Oecologia. 14:269-287.
32. Erkert HG. 1976a. Lunarperiodic variation of the phase-angle difference in nocturnal animals under natural Zeitgeber conditions near the equator. Int J Chronobiol. 4:125-138.
33. Erkert HG. 1976b. Beleuchtungsabhaengiges Aktivitaetsoptimum bei Nachtaffen (Aotus trivirgatus). Folia Primatol. 25:186-192.
34. Erkert HG. 1982. Ecology of bats. New York, London: Plenum Press. p. 201-242. Ecological aspects of bat activity rhythms.
35. Erkert HG. 1989. Characteristics of the circadian activity rhythm in common marmosets (Callithrix j. jacchus). Am J Primatol. 17:271-286.
36. Erkert HG. 1991. Primatology today. Amsterdam, New York, Oxford: Elsevier Science Publishers. p. 435-438. Influence of ambient temperature on circadian rhythms in Colombian owl monkeys, Aotus lemurinus griseimembra.
37. Erkert HG. 2003. Field and laboratory methods in primatology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 252-270. Chronobiological aspects of primate research.
38. Erkert HG, Cramer B. 2006. Chronobiological background to cathemerality:circadian rhythms in Eulemur fulvus albifrons (Prosimii) and Aotus azarai boliviensis (Anthropoidea). Folia Primatol. 77:87-103.
39. Erkert HG, Gburek V, Scheideler A. 2006. Photic entrainment and masking of prosimian circadian rhythms (Otolemur garnettii, Primates). Physiol Behav. 88:39-46.
40. Erkert HG, Groeber J. 1986. Direct modulation of activity and body temperature of owl monkeys (Aotus lemurinus griseimembra) by low light intensities. Folia Primatol. 47:171-188.
41. Erkert HG, Kappeler PM. 2004. Arrived in the light:diel and seasonal activity patterns in wild Verreaux's sifakas (Propithecus v. verreauxi, Primates:Indriidae). Behav Ecol Sociobiol. 57:174-186.
42. Erkert HG, Schardt U. 1991. Social entrainment of circadian activity rhythms in common marmosets, Callithrix j. jacchus (Primates). Ethology. 87:189-202.
43. Erkert HG, Thiemann A. 1983. Dark switch in the entrainment of circadian activity rhythms in night monkeys, Aotus trivirgatus HUMBOLDT. Comp Biochem Physiol. 74A:307-310.
44. Erkinaro E. 1969. Der Phasenwechsel der lokomotorischen Aktivitaet bei Microtus agrestis (L.), M. arvalis (Pall.) und M. oeconomicus (Pall.). Aquilo Ser Zool. 13:1-31.
45. Farrer DN, Ternes JW. 1969. Circadian rhythms in nonhuman primates. Basel: S. Karger. p. 1-7. Bibl Primat 9, Illumination intensity and behavioural circadian rhythms.
46. Fernandez-Duque EF. 2003. Influences of moonlight, ambient temperature and food availablility on the diurnal and nocturnal activity of owl monkeys (Aotus azarai). Behav Ecol Sociobiol. 54:431-440.
47. Fernandez-Duque EF, Erkert HG. 2006. Cathemerality and lunar periodicity of activity rhythms in owl monkeys of the Argentinean chaco. Folia Primatol. 77:123-138.
48. Ferraro JE, Sulzman FM. 1988. The effects of feedback lighting on the circadian drinking rhythm in the diurnal new world primate Saimiri sciureus. Am J Primatol. 15:143-155.
49. Fleagle JG. 1988. Primate adaptation and evolution. San Diego, New York: Academic Press, Inc.. p. 474.
50. Fuller CA, Edgar DM. 1986. Effects of light intensity on the circadian temperature and feeding rhythms in the squirrel monkey. Physiol Behav. 36:687-691.
51. Fuller CA, Lydic R, Sulzman FM, Albers HE, Tepper B, Moore-Ede MC. 1981. Circadian rhythm of body temperature persists after suprachiasmatic lesions in the squirrel monkey. Am J Physiol. 241:R385-R391.
52. Gander PH, Moore-Ede MC. 1983. Light-dark masking of circadian temperature and activity rhythm in squirrel monkeys. Am J Physiol. 245:R927-R934.
53. Garcia JE, Braza. 1987. Activity rhythms and use of space of a group of Aotus azarae in Bolivia during the rainy season. Primates. 28:337-342.
54. Glass JD, Tardiff SD, Clements R, Mrosovsky N. 2001. Photic and nonphotic circadian phase resetting in a diurnal primate, the common marmoset. Am J Physiol. 280:R191-R197.
55. Haerter L, Erkert HG. 1993. Alteration of circadian period length does not influence the ovarian cycle length in common marmosets, Callithrix j. jacchus (Primates). Chronobiol Int. 10:165-175.
56. Haeussler U, Erkert HG. 1978. Different direct effects of light intensity on the entrained activity rhythm in neotropical bats (Chiroptera, Phyllostomidae). Behav Proc. 3:223-239.
57. Halle S. 1995. Diel patterns of locomotor activity in populations of root voles, Microtus oeconomicus. J Biol Rhythms. 10:211-224.
58. Halle S. 2006. Polyphasic activity patterns in small mammals. Folia Primatol. 77:15-26.
59. Hawking F, Lobban MC. 1970. Circadian rhythms in macaca monkeys (physical activity, temperature, urine and microfilarial levels). J Interdisc Cycle Res. 1:267-290.
60. Hoban TM, Levine AH, Shane RB, Sulzman FM. 1985. Circadian rhythms of drinking and body temperature rhythms in night monkeys, Aotus trivirgatus HUMBOLDT. Comp Biochem Physiol. 74A:307-310.
61. Hoban TM, Sulzman FM. 1985. Light effects on the circadian timing system of a diurnal primate, the squirrel monkey. Am J Physiol. 249:R274-280.
62. Horton TH. 2001. Handbook of Neurobiology 12:Circadian clocks. New York: Kluwer Academic Press/Plenum Publishers. p. 45-57. Conceptual issues in the ecology and evolution of circadian rhythms.
63. Hut RA, van Oort BEH, Daan S. 1999a. Natural entrainment without dawn and dusk: The case of the European ground squirrel. J Biol Rhythms. 14:290-299.
64. Hut RA, Mrosovsky N, Daan S. 1999b. Nonphotic entrainment in a diurnal mammal, the European ground squirrel (Spermophilus citellus). J Biol Rhythms. 14:409-419.
65. Jagota A, de la Iglesia HO, Schwartz WJ. 2000. Morning and evening circadian oscillations in the suprachiasmatic nucleus in vitro. Nat Neurosci. 3:372-376.
66. Kappeler PM, Erkert HG. 2003. On the move around the clock:correlates and determinants of cathemeral activity in wild redfronted lemurs (Eulemur fulvus fulvus). Behav Ecol Sociobiol. 54:359-369.
67. Kas MJH, Edgar DM. 2000. Photic phase response curve in Octodon degus:assessment as a function of activity phase preference. Am J Physiol. 278:R1385-R1389.
68. King DP, Takahashi JS. 2000. Molecular genetics of circadian rhythms in mammals. Ann Rev Neurosci. 23:713-742.
69. Kirk EC. 2006. Eye morphology in cathemeral lemurids and other mammals. Folia Primatol. 77:27-49.
70. Klein DC, Moore RY, Reppert SM. editors. 1991. Suprachiasmatic nucleus. The mind's clock. New York (Oxford): Oxford University Press. p. 467.
71. Lee HS, Billings HJ, Lehman MN. 2003. The suprachiasmatic nucleus:a clock of multiple components. J Biol Rhythms. 18:435-449.
72. Lee TM. 2004. Growing evidence that some aspects of SCN function differ in nocturnal and diurnal rodents. Am J Phsiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 286:R814-R815.
73. Lemos DR, Downs JL, Urbanski HF. 2006. Twenty-four-hour rhythmic gene expression in the rhesus macaque adrenal gland. Mol Endocrinol. 20:1164-1176.
74. Lydic R, Albers HE, Tepper B, Moore-Ede MC. 1981. Three-dimensional structure of mammalian suprachiasmatic nuclei:a comparative study of five species. J Comp Neurol. 204:225-237.
75. Marques MD, Waterhouse J. 2004. Rhythms and Ecology - do chronobiologists still remember nature? Biol Rhythm Res. 35:1-2.
76. Martin RD. 1990. Primate origins and evolution. London: Chapman and Hall.
77. Martinez JL. 1972. Effects of selected illumination levels on circadian periodicity in the rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta). J Interdisc Cycle Res. 3:47-59.
78. Meijer JH, Schwartz WJ. 2003. In search of the pathways for light-induced pacemaker resetting the suprachiasmatic nucleus. J Biol Rhythms. 18:235-249.
79. Minors D, Waterhouse J, Rietveld W. 1996. Constant routine and "purification" methods:do they measure the same thing? Biol Rhythm Res. 27:166-174.
80. Moore RY. 1993. Organization of the primate circadian system. J Biol Rhythms. 8(Suppl):3-9.
81. Moore RY, Leak RK. 2001. Suprachiasmatic nucleus. In: Takahashi JS, Turek FW, Moore RY, editors. Handbook of behavioral neurobiology, Vol. 12:Circadian clocks. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. p. 141-179.
82. Moore-Ede MC, Sulzman FM. 1977. The physiological basis of circadian timekeeping in primates. Physiologist. 20:17-25.
83. Moore-Ede MC, Kass DA, Herd JA. 1977. Transient circadian internal desynchronization after light-dark shifts in monkeys. Am J Physiol. 232:R31-37.
84. Moore-Ede MC, Sulzman FM, Fuller. 1982. The clock that time us. Physiology of the circadian system. Cambridge Mass and London: Harvard University Press. p. 448.
85. Morgan E. 2004. Ecological significance of biological clocks. Biol Rhythm Res. 2004:3-12.
86. Moynihan M. 1964. Some behavior patterns of platyrrhine monkeys. I. The night monkey (Aotus trivirgatus). Smithsonian Misc Coll. 146:1-84.
87. Mrosovsky N. 1994. In prais of masking:behavioral responses of retinally degenerate mice to dim light. Chronobiol Int. 11:343-348.
88. Mrosovsky N. 1999. Masking:History, definitions, and measurement. Chronobiol Int. 16:415-429.
89. Mrosovsky N. 2003. Beyond the suprachiasmatic nucleus. Chronobiol Int. 20:1-8.
90. Muñoz M, Peirson SN, Hankins MW, Foster RG. 2005. Long-term constant light induces constitutive elevated expression of mPER2 protein in the murine SCN:A molecular basis for Aschoff's rule? J Biol Rhythms. 20:3-14.
91. Muñoz-Delgado J, Corsi-Cabrera M, Canales-Espinoza D, Santillán-Doherty AM, Erkert HG. 2004. Astronomicl and meteorological parameters and rest-activity rhythm in the spider monkey Ateles geoffroyi. Physiol Behav. 83:107-117.
92. Muñoz-Delgado J, Fuentes-Pardo B, Euler Baum A, Lanzagorta N, Arenas-Rosas R, Santillan-Doherty AM, Guevara MA, Corsi-Cabrera M. 2005. Presence of a circadian rhythm in the spider monkey's (Ateles geoffroyi) motor activity. Biol Rhythm Res. 36:115-121.
93. Murakami DM, Fuller CA. 1990. The retinohypothalamic projection and oxidative metabolism in the suprachiasmatic nucleus of primates and tree shrews. Brain Behav Evol. 35:302-312.
94. Pálkova M, Sigmund L, Erkert HG. 1999. Effect of ambient temperature on the circadian activity rhythm in common marmosets, Callithrix j. jacchus (Primates). Chronobiol Int. 16:149-161.
95. Pittendrigh CS, Daan S. 1976. A functional analysis of circadian pacemakers in nocturnal rodents. V. Pacemaker structure:a clock for all seasons. J Comp Physiol. 106:333-355.
96. Rappold I, Erkert HG. 1994. Re-entrainment, phase-response and range of entrainment of circadian rhythms in owl monkeys (Aotus lemurinus g.) of different age. Biol Rhythm Res. 25:133-152.
97. Rauth-Widmann B, Fuchs E, Erkert HG. 1996. Infradian alteration of circadian rhythms in owl monkeys (Aotus lemurinus griseimembra):An effect of estrous? Physiol Behav. 59:11-18.
98. Rauth-Widmann B, Thiemann-Jäger A, Erkert HG. 1991. Significance of nonparametric light effects in entrainment of circadian rhythms in owl monkeys (Aotus lemurinus griseimembra) by light-dark cycles. Chronobiol Int. 8:251-266.
99. Redlin U, Mrosovsky N. 2004. Nocturnal activity in a diurnal rodent (Arvicanthis niloticus):The importance of masking. J Biol Rhythms. 19:58-67.
100. Refinetti R. 2004. Parameters of photic resetting of the circadian system of a diurnal rodent, the nile grass rat. Acta Sci Vet. 32:1-7.
101. Refinetti R. 2006. Variability of diurnality in laboratory rodents. J Comp Physiol A. 192:701-714.
102. Reebs SG, Mrosovsky N. 1989. Effects of induced wheel running on the circadian activity rhythms of Syrian hamsters:entrainment and phase response curve. J Biol Rhythms. 4:39-48.
103. Rensing L. 1989. Is "masking" an appropriate term? Chronobiol Int. 6:297-300.
104. Reppert SM, Perlow MJ, Ungerleider LG, Mishkin M, Tamarkin L, Orloff DG, Hoffman HJ, Klein DC. 1981. Effects of damage to the suprachiasmatic area of the anterior hypothalamus on the daily melatonin and cortisol rhythms in the rhesus monkey. J Neurosci. 1:1414-1425.
105. Reppert S, Schwartz W, Uhl G. 1987. Arginine vasopressin:A novel peptide rhythm in cerebrospinal fluid. Trends Neurosci. 10:76-80.
106. Robinson EL, Fuller CA. 1999. Light masking of circadian rhythms of heat production, heat loss, and body temperature in squirrel monkeys. Am J Physiol. 276:R298-R307.
107. Rotundo M, Sloan C, Fernandez-Duque E. 2000. Cambios estacionales en el ritmo de actividad del mono mirikiná (Aotus azarai) en Formosa Argentina. In: Cabrera E, Mércolli C, Resquin R (eds.) Manejo de fauna silvestre en Amazonia y Latinoamerica, pp. 413-417. Asunción, Fundación Moisés Bertoni.
108. Schanz F, Erkert HG. 1987. Resynchronisationsverhalten der Aktivitaetsperiodik von Galagos (Galago senegalensis, Galago crassicaudatus garnettii). Z Saeugetierk. 52:218-226.
109. Schardt U, Wilhelm I, Erkert HG. 1989. Splitting of the circadian activity rhythm in common marmosets (Callithrix j.jacchus; Primates). Experientia. 45:1112-1115.
110. Schilling A, Richard J-P, Servière J. 1999. Duration of activity and period of circadian activity-rest rhythm in a photoperiod-dependent primate, Microcebus murinus. CR Acad Sci Paris, Life Sci. 322:759-770.
111. Schwartz MD, Nunez AA, Smale L. 2004. Differences in the suprachisamatic nucleus and lower subparaventricular zone of diurnal and nocturnal rodents. Neusoscience. 127:13-23.
112. Schwartz WJ, de la Iglesia HO, Zlomanczuk P, Illnerova H. 2001. Encoding le quattro stagioni within the mammalian brain: Photoperiodic orchestration through the suprachiasmatic nucleus. J Biol Rhythms. 16:302-311.
113. Shearman LP, Siriam S, Weaver DR, Maywood ES, Chavez I, Zheng B, Kume K, Lee CC, van der Horst GTJ, Hastings MH, Reppert SM. 2000. Interacting molecular loops in the mammalian circadian clock. Science. 288:1013-1019.
114. Smale L, Lee T, Nunez AA. 2003. Mammalian diurnality:some facts and gaps. J Biol Rhythms. 18:356-366.
115. Starck D. 1978. Vergleichende Anatomie der Wirbeltiere auf evolutionsbiologischer Grundlage. Vol. 1:Theoretische Grundlagen, Stammesgeschichte und Systematik unter Beruecksichtigung der niederen Chordata. Berlin, Heidelberg, New York: Springer-Verlag. p. 274.
116. Sulzman FM, Fuller CA, Moore-Ede MC. 1977a. Feeding time synchronizes primate circadian rhythms. Physiol Behav. 18:775-779.
117. Sulzman FM, Fuller CA, Moore-Ede MC. 1977b. Spontaneous internal desynchronization of circadian rhythms in the squirrel monkey. Comp Biochem Physiol. 58A:63-67.
118. Sulzman FM, Fuller FA, Moore-Ede MC. 1978. Comparison of synchronization of primate circadian rhythms by light and food. Am J Physiol. 234:R130-R135.
119. Sulzman FM, Fuller CA, Moore-Ede. 1979. Tonic effects of light on the circadian system of the squirrel monkey. J Comp Physiol. 129:43-50.
120. Tattersall I. 1987. Cathemeral activity in primates:a definition. Folia Primatol. 49:200-202.
121. Tattersall I. 1979. Patterns of activity in the Mayotte lemur. J Mammal. 60:314-323.
122. Tattersall I. 2006. The concept of cathemerality: history and definition. Folia Primatol. 77:7-14.
123. Thiemann-Jaeger A. 1986. Charakteristika der circadianen Aktivitaetsperiodik von Nachtaffen (Aotus trivirgatus, HUMBOLDT 1811). Germany: University of Tuebingen. p. 79. Doctoral thesis.
124. Tokura H, Aschoff J. 1978. Circadian activity rhythms of the pig-tailed macaque, Macaca nemestrina, under constant conditions. Pfluegers Archiv. 376:241-243.
125. Tokura H, Aschoff J. 1983. Effects of temperature on the circadian rhythm of pig-tailed macaques, Macaca nemestrina. Am J Physiol. 245:R800-804.
126. Van Horn RN, Eaton GG. 1979. The Study of prosimian behaviour. New York: Academic Press. p. 79-122. Reproductive physiology and behavior in prosimians.
127. Van Schaik CP, Kappeler PM. 1996. The social systems of gregarious lemurs:lack of convergence with anthropoids due to evolutionary disequilibrium? Ethology. 102:915-941.
128. Weaver DR. 1998. The suprachiasmatic nucleus:a 25-year retrospective. J Biol Rhythms. 13:100-112.
129. Wechselberger E. 1994. Current Primatology Vol. III. Strasbourg: Université Louis Pasteur. p. 223-226. Phase-shifting effects of arousal on circadian rhythms in Callithrix j. jacchus.
130. Wechselberger E. 1995. Charakteristik und Mechanismen der Synchronisation der Circadianperiodik des Weissbuesschelaeffchens, Callithrix j. jacchus. Germany: University of Tuebingen. p. 113. Doctoral thesis.
131. Wechselberger E, Erkert HG. 1994. Characteristics of the light-induced phase response of circadian activity rhythms in common marmosets, Callithrix j. jacchus [Primates-Cebidae]. Chronobiol Int. 11:275-284.
132. Wexler DB, Moore-Ede MC. 1985. Circadian sleep-wake cycle organization in squirrel monkeys. Am J Physiol. 248:R353-R362.
133. Wexler DB, Moore-Ede MC. 1986. Resynchronization of circadian sleep-wake and temperature cycles in the squirrel monkey following phase shifts of the environmental light-dark cycle. Aviat Space Environ Med. 57:1144-1149.
134. Wright PC. 1978. Home range, activity patterns, and agonistic encounters of a group of night monkeys (Aotus trivirgatus) in Perú. Folia Primatol. 29:43-55.
135. Wright PC. 1989. The nocturnal primate niche in the New World. J Hum Evol. 18:635-658.
136. Yan L, Foley NC, Bobula JM, Kriegsfeld LJ, Silver R. 2005. Two antiphase oscillations occur in each suprachiasmatic nucleus of behaviorally split hamsters. J Neurosci. 28:9017-9026.
137. Yellin AM, Hauty GT. 1971. Activity cycles of the rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta) under several experimental conditions both in isolation and in a group situation. J Interdiscipl Cycle Res. 2:475-490.
138. Zordan M, Costa R, Macino G, Fukuhara C, Tosini G. 2000. Circadian clocks: what makes them tick? Chronobiol Int. 17:433-451.