The 1964 Civil Rights Act: Narrating the past, authorizing the future

Studies in American Political Development

Volumn 18, Issue 1, 2004, Pages 60-69

  Hattam, Victoria ^a  

^a NEW SCHOOL FOR SOCIAL RESEARCH   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 4043174190     PISSN: 0898588X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/s0898588x04000045     Document Type: Review

References (65)

1. See John D. Skrentny, The Ironies of Affirmative Action: Politics, Culture, and Justice in America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996); Bernard Grofman, ed., Legacies of the 1964 Civil Rights Act (Charlottesville, VA: University Press of Virginia, 2000 ); Robert Post and Michael P. Rogin, ed., Race and Representation: Affirmative Action (New York: Zone books, 1998); John D. Skrentny, ed., Color Lines: Affirmative Action, Immigration, and Civil Rights Options for America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001); Hugh Davis Graham, Collision Course: The Strange Convergence of Affirmative Action and Immigration Policy in America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002) ; Nancy Foner and George Fredrickson, eds., Not Just Black and White: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives on Immigration, Race, and Ethnicity in the United States (New York: Russell Sage, 2004).
2. See John D. Skrentny, The Ironies of Affirmative Action: Politics, Culture, and Justice in America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996); Bernard Grofman, ed., Legacies of the 1964 Civil Rights Act (Charlottesville, VA: University Press of Virginia, 2000 ); Robert Post and Michael P. Rogin, ed., Race and Representation: Affirmative Action (New York: Zone books, 1998); John D. Skrentny, ed., Color Lines: Affirmative Action, Immigration, and Civil Rights Options for America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001); Hugh Davis Graham, Collision Course: The Strange Convergence of Affirmative Action and Immigration Policy in America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002) ; Nancy Foner and George Fredrickson, eds., Not Just Black and White: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives on Immigration, Race, and Ethnicity in the United States (New York: Russell Sage, 2004).
3. See John D. Skrentny, The Ironies of Affirmative Action: Politics, Culture, and Justice in America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996); Bernard Grofman, ed., Legacies of the 1964 Civil Rights Act (Charlottesville, VA: University Press of Virginia, 2000 ); Robert Post and Michael P. Rogin, ed., Race and Representation: Affirmative Action (New York: Zone books, 1998); John D. Skrentny, ed., Color Lines: Affirmative Action, Immigration, and Civil Rights Options for America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001); Hugh Davis Graham, Collision Course: The Strange Convergence of Affirmative Action and Immigration Policy in America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002); Nancy Foner and George Fredrickson, eds., Not Just Black and White: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives on Immigration, Race, and Ethnicity in the United States (New York: Russell Sage, 2004).
4. See John D. Skrentny, The Ironies of Affirmative Action: Politics, Culture, and Justice in America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996); Bernard Grofman, ed., Legacies of the 1964 Civil Rights Act (Charlottesville, VA: University Press of Virginia, 2000 ); Robert Post and Michael P. Rogin, ed., Race and Representation: Affirmative Action (New York: Zone books, 1998); John D. Skrentny, ed., Color Lines: Affirmative Action, Immigration, and Civil Rights Options for America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001); Hugh Davis Graham, Collision Course: The Strange Convergence of Affirmative Action and Immigration Policy in America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002); Nancy Foner and George Fredrickson, eds., Not Just Black and White: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives on Immigration, Race, and Ethnicity in the United States (New York: Russell Sage, 2004).
5. See John D. Skrentny, The Ironies of Affirmative Action: Politics, Culture, and Justice in America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996); Bernard Grofman, ed., Legacies of the 1964 Civil Rights Act (Charlottesville, VA: University Press of Virginia, 2000 ); Robert Post and Michael P. Rogin, ed., Race and Representation: Affirmative Action (New York: Zone books, 1998); John D. Skrentny, ed., Color Lines: Affirmative Action, Immigration, and Civil Rights Options for America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001); Hugh Davis Graham, Collision Course: The Strange Convergence of Affirmative Action and Immigration Policy in America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002) ; Nancy Foner and George Fredrickson, eds., Not Just Black and White: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives on Immigration, Race, and Ethnicity in the United States (New York: Russell Sage, 2004).
6. See John D. Skrentny, The Ironies of Affirmative Action: Politics, Culture, and Justice in America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996); Bernard Grofman, ed., Legacies of the 1964 Civil Rights Act (Charlottesville, VA: University Press of Virginia, 2000 ); Robert Post and Michael P. Rogin, ed., Race and Representation: Affirmative Action (New York: Zone books, 1998); John D. Skrentny, ed., Color Lines: Affirmative Action, Immigration, and Civil Rights Options for America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001); Hugh Davis Graham, Collision Course: The Strange Convergence of Affirmative Action and Immigration Policy in America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002) ; Nancy Foner and George Fredrickson, eds., Not Just Black and White: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives on Immigration, Race, and Ethnicity in the United States (New York: Russell Sage, 2004).
7. John D. Skrentny, The Minority Rights Revolution (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2002). For example, see the following favorable reviews: Edward Countryman, "Mosaic Law: 'The Minority Rights Revolution' by John D. Skrentny and 'Diversity' by Peter Wood," The Washington Post, Sunday, April 6, 2003, p. BW08 ; David L. Kirp, "Diversity and Its Malcontents," The Nation 21 Apr. 2003;
8. John D. Skrentny, The Minority Rights Revolution (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2002). For example, see the following favorable reviews: Edward Countryman, "Mosaic Law: 'The Minority Rights Revolution' by John D. Skrentny and 'Diversity' by Peter Wood," The Washington Post, Sunday, April 6, 2003, p. BW08 ; David L. Kirp, "Diversity and Its Malcontents," The Nation 21 Apr. 2003;
9. John D. Skrentny, The Minority Rights Revolution (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2002). For example, see the following favorable reviews: Edward Countryman, "Mosaic Law: 'The Minority Rights Revolution' by John D. Skrentny and 'Diversity' by Peter Wood," The Washington Post, Sunday, April 6, 2003, p. BW08 ; David L. Kirp, "Diversity and Its Malcontents," The Nation 21 Apr. 2003;
10. Howard Schuman, "The Minority Rights Revolution," Contemporary Sociology 32 (2003): 434-36.
11. Skrentny, Minority Rights Revolution, chap. 2.
12. I take the key chapter of Skrentny's book to be chap. 4, where he traces the minority rights revolution within the federal civil rights bureaucracy.
13. Skrentny, Minority Rights Revolution, 101-2.
14. Ibid., 102-3.
15. Ibid., 111, 119-20.
16. For reference to the "self-evident" and "taken-for- granted" quality of the categories, see ibid., 94, 103; "anticipatory politics," 142.
17. Ibid., "free rides," 141; "earned," 94.
18. Ibid., 94
19. See ibid., 109, and chap. 9.1 think Skrentny mischaracterizes the formal designation of Hispanics/Latinos as a racial minority as, in fact, the federal ethnoracial taxonomy quite explicitly specifies that Hispanics/Latinos are to be considered an ethnic group rather than a race. Put simply, there is no brown race in the official American racial taxonomy. On May 12, 1977 the OMB promulgated Statistical Policy Directive 15, which established mandatory categories for collecting and reporting all ethnic and racial data by the federal government. In Directive 15, Hispanics were considered an ethnic group rather than a race. For history of the Directive, see "Standards for the Classification of Federal Data on Race and Ethnicity," in Federal Register 59, No. 110, 9 June 1994, 29831-35; and Barry Edmonston, Joshua Goldstein, Juanita Tamayo Lott, eds., Spotlight on Heterogeneity: The Federal Standards for Racial and Ethnic Classification (Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1996), 6. For an analysis of the terms and conditions of the Directive, see Victoria Hattam, Shadows of Pluralism: The Racial Politics of American Ethnicity, chap 5.
20. See ibid., 109, and chap. 9.1 think Skrentny mischaracterizes the formal designation of Hispanics/Latinos as a racial minority as, in fact, the federal ethnoracial taxonomy quite explicitly specifies that Hispanics/Latinos are to be considered an ethnic group rather than a race. Put simply, there is no brown race in the official American racial taxonomy. On May 12, 1977 the OMB promulgated Statistical Policy Directive 15, which established mandatory categories for collecting and reporting all ethnic and racial data by the federal government. In Directive 15, Hispanics were considered an ethnic group rather than a race. For history of the Directive, see "Standards for the Classification of Federal Data on Race and Ethnicity," in Federal Register 59, No. 110, 9 June 1994, 29831-35; and Barry Edmonston, Joshua Goldstein, Juanita Tamayo Lott, eds., Spotlight on Heterogeneity: The Federal Standards for Racial and Ethnic Classification (Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1996), 6. For an analysis of the terms and conditions of the Directive, see Victoria Hattam, Shadows of Pluralism: The Racial Politics of American Ethnicity, chap 5.
21. See ibid., 109, and chap. 9.1 think Skrentny mischaracterizes the formal designation of Hispanics/Latinos as a racial minority as, in fact, the federal ethnoracial taxonomy quite explicitly specifies that Hispanics/Latinos are to be considered an ethnic group rather than a race. Put simply, there is no brown race in the official American racial taxonomy. On May 12, 1977 the OMB promulgated Statistical Policy Directive 15, which established mandatory categories for collecting and reporting all ethnic and racial data by the federal government. In Directive 15, Hispanics were considered an ethnic group rather than a race. For history of the Directive, see "Standards for the Classification of Federal Data on Race and Ethnicity," in Federal Register 59, No. 110, 9 June 1994, 29831-35; and Barry Edmonston, Joshua Goldstein, Juanita Tamayo Lott, eds., Spotlight on Heterogeneity: The Federal Standards for Racial and Ethnic Classification (Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1996), 6. For an analysis of the terms and conditions of the Directive, see Victoria Hattam, Shadows of Pluralism: The Racial Politics of American Ethnicity, chap 5.
22. See ibid., 109, and chap. 9.1 think Skrentny mischaracterizes the formal designation of Hispanics/Latinos as a racial minority as, in fact, the federal ethnoracial taxonomy quite explicitly specifies that Hispanics/Latinos are to be considered an ethnic group rather than a race. Put simply, there is no brown race in the official American racial taxonomy. On May 12, 1977 the OMB promulgated Statistical Policy Directive 15, which established mandatory categories for collecting and reporting all ethnic and racial data by the federal government. In Directive 15, Hispanics were considered an ethnic group rather than a race. For history of the Directive, see "Standards for the Classification of Federal Data on Race and Ethnicity," in Federal Register 59, No. 110, 9 June 1994, 29831-35; and Barry Edmonston, Joshua Goldstein, Juanita Tamayo Lott, eds., Spotlight on Heterogeneity: The Federal Standards for Racial and Ethnic Classification (Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1996), 6. For an analysis of the terms and conditions of the Directive, see Victoria Hattam, Shadows of Pluralism: The Racial Politics of American Ethnicity, chap 5.
23. For the language of Title V11, see Skrentny, Minority Rights Revolution, 88, for the narrow intent, see ibid., 90, 101, 141.
24. For the language of Title V11, see Skrentny, Minority Rights Revolution, 88, for the narrow intent, see ibid., 90, 101, 141.
25. Ibid., 90.
26. Ibid., 141.
27. For this contextual evidence, see ibid., 103.
28. Ibid., 101.
29. Ibid., 142.
30. For elaboration of this side of Skrentny's argument, see John D. Skrentny, "Affirmative Action and New Demographic Realities," Chronicle for Higher Education, February 16, 2001.
31. For classic examples of movement-centered analyses of civil rights reform, see Aldon D. Morris, Origins of the Civil Rights Movements (New York: Free Press, 1986) ; Doug McAdam, Political Process and the Development of Black Insurgency, 1930-1970 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985); Claybourne Carson, In Struggle: SNCC and the Black Awakening of the 1960s (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1995) ; Harvard Sitkoff, The Struggle for Black Equality, 1954-1980 (New York: Hill and Wang, 1981).
32. For classic examples of movement-centered analyses of civil rights reform, see Aldon D. Morris, Origins of the Civil Rights Movements (New York: Free Press, 1986) ; Doug McAdam, Political Process and the Development of Black Insurgency, 1930-1970 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985); Claybourne Carson, In Struggle: SNCC and the Black Awakening of the 1960s (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1995) ; Harvard Sitkoff, The Struggle for Black Equality, 1954-1980 (New York: Hill and Wang, 1981).
33. For classic examples of movement-centered analyses of civil rights reform, see Aldon D. Morris, Origins of the Civil Rights Movements (New York: Free Press, 1986) ; Doug McAdam, Political Process and the Development of Black Insurgency, 1930-1970 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985); Claybourne Carson, In Struggle: SNCC and the Black Awakening of the 1960s (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1995) ; Harvard Sitkoff, The Struggle for Black Equality, 1954-1980 (New York: Hill and Wang, 1981).
34. For classic examples of movement-centered analyses of civil rights reform, see Aldon D. Morris, Origins of the Civil Rights Movements (New York: Free Press, 1986) ; Doug McAdam, Political Process and the Development of Black Insurgency, 1930-1970 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985); Claybourne Carson, In Struggle: SNCC and the Black Awakening of the 1960s (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1995) ; Harvard Sitkoff, The Struggle for Black Equality, 1954-1980 (New York: Hill and Wang, 1981).
35. See Mae Ngai, "The Architecture of Race in American Immigration Law: A Reexamination of the Immigration Act of 1924," Journal of American History 86 (1999): 67-92 ; Claire Kim, Bitter Fruit: The Politics of Black Korean Conflict in New York City (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2000); Ian Haney Lopez, White by Law: The Legal Construction of Race (New York: New York University Press, 1998); Linda Gordon, The Great Arizona Orphan Abduction (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999) ; George Sanchez, Becoming Mexican American: Ethnicity, Culture and Identity in Chicano Los Angles, 1900-1945 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993); Ronald Takaki, A Different Mirror: A History of Multicultural America (Boston: Little Brown, & Co, 1993) ; Erika Lee, "At America's Gates: Chinese Immigration During the Progressive Era, 1882-1943," in Foner and Fredrickson, Not Just Black and White.
36. See Mae Ngai, "The Architecture of Race in American Immigration Law: A Reexamination of the Immigration Act of 1924," Journal of American History 86 (1999): 67-92 ; Claire Kim, Bitter Fruit: The Politics of Black Korean Conflict in New York City (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2000); Ian Haney Lopez, White by Law: The Legal Construction of Race (New York: New York University Press, 1998); Linda Gordon, The Great Arizona Orphan Abduction (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999) ; George Sanchez, Becoming Mexican American: Ethnicity, Culture and Identity in Chicano Los Angles, 1900-1945 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993); Ronald Takaki, A Different Mirror: A History of Multicultural America (Boston: Little Brown, & Co, 1993) ; Erika Lee, "At America's Gates: Chinese Immigration During the Progressive Era, 1882-1943," in Foner and Fredrickson, Not Just Black and White.
37. See Mae Ngai, "The Architecture of Race in American Immigration Law: A Reexamination of the Immigration Act of 1924," Journal of American History 86 (1999): 67-92 ; Claire Kim, Bitter Fruit: The Politics of Black Korean Conflict in New York City (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2000); Ian Haney Lopez, White by Law: The Legal Construction of Race (New York: New York University Press, 1998); Linda Gordon, The Great Arizona Orphan Abduction (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999) ; George Sanchez, Becoming Mexican American: Ethnicity, Culture and Identity in Chicano Los Angles, 1900-1945 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993); Ronald Takaki, A Different Mirror: A History of Multicultural America (Boston: Little Brown, & Co, 1993) ; Erika Lee, "At America's Gates: Chinese Immigration During the Progressive Era, 1882-1943," in Foner and Fredrickson, Not Just Black and White.
38. See Mae Ngai, "The Architecture of Race in American Immigration Law: A Reexamination of the Immigration Act of 1924," Journal of American History 86 (1999): 67-92 ; Claire Kim, Bitter Fruit: The Politics of Black Korean Conflict in New York City (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2000); Ian Haney Lopez, White by Law: The Legal Construction of Race (New York: New York University Press, 1998); Linda Gordon, The Great Arizona Orphan Abduction (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999) ; George Sanchez, Becoming Mexican American: Ethnicity, Culture and Identity in Chicano Los Angles, 1900-1945 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993); Ronald Takaki, A Different Mirror: A History of Multicultural America (Boston: Little Brown, & Co, 1993) ; Erika Lee, "At America's Gates: Chinese Immigration During the Progressive Era, 1882-1943," in Foner and Fredrickson, Not Just Black and White.
39. See Mae Ngai, "The Architecture of Race in American Immigration Law: A Reexamination of the Immigration Act of 1924," Journal of American History 86 (1999): 67-92 ; Claire Kim, Bitter Fruit: The Politics of Black Korean Conflict in New York City (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2000); Ian Haney Lopez, White by Law: The Legal Construction of Race (New York: New York University Press, 1998); Linda Gordon, The Great Arizona Orphan Abduction (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999) ; George Sanchez, Becoming Mexican American: Ethnicity, Culture and Identity in Chicano Los Angles, 1900-1945 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993); Ronald Takaki, A Different Mirror: A History of Multicultural America (Boston: Little Brown, & Co, 1993) ; Erika Lee, "At America's Gates: Chinese Immigration During the Progressive Era, 1882-1943," in Foner and Fredrickson, Not Just Black and White.
40. See Mae Ngai, "The Architecture of Race in American Immigration Law: A Reexamination of the Immigration Act of 1924," Journal of American History 86 (1999): 67-92 ; Claire Kim, Bitter Fruit: The Politics of Black Korean Conflict in New York City (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2000); Ian Haney Lopez, White by Law: The Legal Construction of Race (New York: New York University Press, 1998); Linda Gordon, The Great Arizona Orphan Abduction (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999) ; George Sanchez, Becoming Mexican American: Ethnicity, Culture and Identity in Chicano Los Angles, 1900-1945 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993); Ronald Takaki, A Different Mirror: A History of Multicultural America (Boston: Little Brown, & Co, 1993) ; Erika Lee, "At America's Gates: Chinese Immigration During the Progressive Era, 1882-1943," in Foner and Fredrickson, Not Just Black and White.
41. See Mae Ngai, "The Architecture of Race in American Immigration Law: A Reexamination of the Immigration Act of 1924," Journal of American History 86 (1999): 67-92 ; Claire Kim, Bitter Fruit: The Politics of Black Korean Conflict in New York City (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2000); Ian Haney Lopez, White by Law: The Legal Construction of Race (New York: New York University Press, 1998); Linda Gordon, The Great Arizona Orphan Abduction (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999) ; George Sanchez, Becoming Mexican American: Ethnicity, Culture and Identity in Chicano Los Angles, 1900-1945 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993); Ronald Takaki, A Different Mirror: A History of Multicultural America (Boston: Little Brown, & Co, 1993) ; Erika Lee, "At America's Gates: Chinese Immigration During the Progressive Era, 1882-1943," in Foner and Fredrickson, Not Just Black and White.
42. See especially, Rogers Smith, Civic Ideals (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1997); Gary Gerstle, American Crucible; (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2001); and Aristide Zolberg, A Nation by Design (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, forthcoming), all of which explore the complex ethnic and racial politics in American nation building.
43. See especially, Rogers Smith, Civic Ideals (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1997); Gary Gerstle, American Crucible; (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2001); and Aristide Zolberg, A Nation by Design (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, forthcoming), all of which explore the complex ethnic and racial politics in American nation building.
44. See especially, Rogers Smith, Civic Ideals (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1997); Gary Gerstle, American Crucible; (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2001); and Aristide Zolberg, A Nation by Design (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, forthcoming), all of which explore the complex ethnic and racial politics in American nation building.
45. See Skrentny, Minority Rights Revolution, 119. In Fiscal Year 1966, only 2 percent of discrimination complaints were based on national origin, and of the 3,773 complaints marked for investigation, only twenty-five were from Mexican Americans (0.66 percent).
46. Throughout the report, the committee specified "race, religion, national origin," as grounds for discrimination. For example, see the discussion of "Our Diverse Population" in chap. 2, and the accounts of job discrimination in chap. 2, sec. 4 on "The Right. to Equal Opportunity," in To Secure These Rights: The Report of the President's Committee on Civil Rights (Washington, DC: United States Government Printing Office, 1947), 13-17, 53-79.
47. For the discrimination figures, see 54. For a fascinating discussion of the interplay of anti-Semitism and racism, see George Fridrickson, Racism: A Short History (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2002).
48. This is a rather large and rapidly changing field of research. However, see Juan Gomez Quinones, Chicano Politics: Reality and Promise, 1940-1990 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1990)
49. ; Craig A. Kaplowitz, "A Distinct Minority: LULAC, Mexican American Identity, and Presidential Policymaking, 1965-1972," The Journal of Policy History 15 (2003): 192-222;
50. Ian Haney Lopez, Racism on Trial: The Chicano Fight for Justice (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003)
51. ; Troy Johnson, Duane Champagne, and Joanne Nagel, "American Indian Activism and Transformation: Lessons from Alcatraz," in Contemporary Native American Political Issues ed. Troy R. Johnson (New York: AltaMira Press, 1999);
52. Yen Espiritu, Asian American Panethnicity: Bridging Institutions and Identities (New Brunswick, NJ: Temple University Press, 1993);
53. Pei-te Lien, The Making of Asian America through Political Participation (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2001)
54. ; Komozi Woodard, A Nation Within a Nation: Amiri Baraka (LeRoi Jones) and Black Power Politics (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1999), esp. chaps. 2-3, which explores the coalition politics in place.
55. Quoted from "Special Message to the Congress: The American Promise. March 15, 1965," Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States, Lyndon B. Johnson, Containing the Public Messages, Speeches, and Statements of the President, 1965, Book 1 - January 1 to May 31, 1965 (Washington, DC: United States Government Printing Office, 1966). See also Johnson's famous Howard University commencement address, "To Fulfill These Rights," Commencement Address at Howard University, June 4, 1965, where he again invokes discrimination against Mexican Americans when trying to capture the ravages of American racism.
56. See Julie Leinenger Pycior, LBJ and Mexican Americans: The Paradox of Power (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1997).
57. For a fascinating account of Congressional debate over Title VII that attends to the complex and ambiguous place of Hispanics in the discussion, see Alex M. Saragoza, Concepcion R. Juarez, Abel Valenzuela Jr., Oscar Gonzalez, "History and Public Policy: Title V11 and the Use of the Hispanic Classification," La Raza Law Journal 5 (1992): 1-27, esp. sec. 111, 11-15. Although this essay draws rather different conclusions than I do here, their account of Congressional debates suggests that regional interests helped to frame the Act broadly, even though the grounds for doing so were not always clearly articulated. For a fascinating account of LULAC and civil rights reform, see Kaplowitz, "A Distinct Minority." For an elegant account of American racial history as comprised of both the legacies of slavery and imperialism, see
58. Kenneth Prewitt, "Higher Education and the Diversity Initiative," paper presented at National Association of Independent Colleges and Universities, Washington, D.C., January 27, 2003.
59. For the Goldwater quote, see Skrentny, Minority Rights Revolution, 1; for Mexican American support for Kennedy, sec ibid., 92.
60. For the Goldwater quote, see Skrentny, Minority Rights Revolution, 1; for Mexican American support for Kennedy, sec ibid., 92.
61. For an interesting discussion of the strategic importance of Hispanics/Latinos within Republican strategizing during the Johnson and Nixon campaigns, see Kaplowitz, "A Distinct Minority."
62. For a history of the complex relation between categories of ethnicity and race, see Victoria Hattam, "Ethnicity: An American Genealogy," in Foner and Fredrickson, ed., Not Just Black and White.
63. Surprisingly, Skrentny pays little attention to OMB's Statistical Policy Directive 15, yet this is the administrative mechanism used to codify post-1964 ethnic and racial categories. This brief Directive suggests a rather different taxonomy in place than that depicted by Skrentny, especially as regards the place of Hispanics/Latinos within the American ethnoracial order.
64. See reflections by participant on the 1963 march on Washington almost all of which reflect the complexity and interconnectedness of a wide range of concerns within the civil rights movement. Issues of memory notwithstanding, it is difficult to square these reflections with Skrentny's much narrower conception of the same period. See Lynette Clemetson, "Inspired by The Speech, They too, Had a Dream," NYT, Sunday, August 24, 2003, The Nation, p. 12. See also Paul Herman's review of John D'Emilio's recent book on Bayard Rustin. Both the book and the review draw attention to questions of class and sexuality in the early civil rights movement. See Paul Berman, "Hidden Sides, Hushed Ideals of a Civil Rights Strategist," NYT August 23, 2003.
65. Exactly when one dates the emergence of "identity politics" as an umbrella term to designate the series of political claims ushered in during the 60s and 70s is an interesting question. And whether it was always offered as a term of critique is worth closer examination. Alice Echols, drawing on Jeffrey Weeks, dates the emergence of the term identity politics to the post-1968 period. It is worth tracing more carefully when and where the term began to circulate and with what political effects. See Alice Echols, "Nothing Distant About it: Women's Liberation and Sixties Radicalism," in David Farber, ed., The Sixties:From Memory to History (Chapel Hill; University of North Carolina Press, 1994).