Global estimates of the land-atmosphere water flux based on monthly AVHRR and ISLSCP-II data, validated at 16 FLUXNET sites

Remote Sensing of Environment

Volumn 112, Issue 3, 2008, Pages 901-919

  Fisher, Joshua B ^a   Tu, Kevin P ^a   Baldocchi, Dennis D ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

AmeriFlux; Ecophysiology; Eddy flux; Evapotranspiration; FLUXNET; Global; International Land Surface Climatology Project; ISLSCP; ISLSCP II; Model; MODIS; Priestly Taylor; Remote sensing; Water flux

Indexed keywords

ADVANCED VERY HIGH RESOLUTION RADIOMETERS (AVHRR); CROPS; DATA STRUCTURES; EVAPOTRANSPIRATION; REMOTE SENSING;

AMERIFLUX; ECOPHYSIOLOGY; PRIESTLY TAYLOR;

WATER VAPOR;

AVHRR; BIOPHYSICS; CALIBRATION; CROP; DATA SET; DECIDUOUS FOREST; ECOPHYSIOLOGY; EVAPOTRANSPIRATION; EVERGREEN FOREST; GRASSLAND; LAND SURFACE; MODIS; NDVI; REMOTE SENSING; SPATIAL RESOLUTION; WATER VAPOR;

EID: 39749092576     PISSN: 00344257     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.rse.2007.06.025     Document Type: Article

References (130)

1. Baldocchi D., and Meyers T. On using eco-physiological, micrometeorological and biogeochemical theory to evaluate carbon dioxide, water vapor and trace gas fluxes over vegetation: A perspective. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 90 (1998) 1-25
2. Baldocchi D., Falge E., Gu L.H., Olson R.J., Hollinger D., Running S.W., et al. FLUXNET: A new tool to study the temporal and spatial variability of ecosystem-scale carbon dioxide, water vapor, and energy flux densities. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 82 (2001) 2415-2434
3. Baldocchi D., Hicks B., and Meyers T. Measuring biosphere-atmosphere exchanges of biologically related gases with micrometeorological methods. Ecology 69 (1988) 1331
4. Barton I.J. A parameterization of the evaporation from nonsaturated surfaces. Journal of Applied Meteorology 18 (1979) 43-47
5. Baumgartner A., and Reichel E. The world of water balance (1975), Elsevier, New York
6. Beer A. Bestimmung der Absorption des rothen Lichts in farbigen Flüssigkeiten. Ann. Phys. u. Chem (1852)
7. Bisht G., Venturini V., Islam S., and Jiang L. Estimation of the net radiation using MODIS (Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer). Remote Sensing of Environment 97 (2005) 52-67
8. Black T.A. Evapotranspiration from Douglas-fir stands exposed to soil water deficits. Water Resources Research 15 (1979) 164-170
9. Bouchet R.J. Evapotranspiration re ́elle evapotranspiration potentielle, signification climatique. Int. Assoc. Sci. Hydrol. (1963) 134-142
10. Bouguer P. Traite'd'optique sur la gradation de la lumiere (1729)
11. Budyko M.I. Evaporation under natural conditions (1948), Gidrometeoizdat, Leningrad
12. Budyko M.I. On the influence of reclamation measures upon potential evapotranspiration. Izv. Akad. Nauk. SSSR Ser. Geogr. Vol. 1 (1951) 16-35
13. Budyko M.I. Climate and life (1971), Hydrometeoizdat, Leningrad 472
14. Budyko M.I. The heat balance of the Earth. In: Gribbin J. (Ed). Climatic change (1978), Cambridge University Press, New York 85-113
15. Budyko M.I., and Zubenok L.I. The determination of evaporation from the land surface. Izv. Ak. Nauk SSR, Se. Geog. Vol. 6 (1961) 3-17
16. Campbell G.S., and Norman J.M. An introduction to environmental biophysics (1998), Springer-Verlag, New York 286
17. Choudhury B.J. Global pattern of potential evaporation calculated from the Penman-Monteith equation using satellite and assimilated data. Remote Sensing of Environment 61 (1997) 64-81
18. Choudhury B.J. Estimation of vapor pressure deficit over land surfaces from satellite observations. Advances in Space Research 22 (1998) 669-672
19. Choudhury B.J., and DiGirolamo N.E. A biophysical process-based estimate of global land surface evaporation using satellite and ancillary data I. Model description and comparison with observations. Journal of Hydrology 205 (1998) 164-185
20. Choudhury B.J., DiGirolamo N.E., Susskind J., Darnell W.L., Gupta S.K., and Asrar G. A biophysical process-based estimate of global land surface evaporation using satellite and ancillary data II. Regional and global patterns of seasonal and annual variations. Journal of Hydrology 205 (1998) 186-204
21. Choudhury B.J., Idso S.B., and Reginato R.J. Analysis of an empirical model for soil heat flux under a growing wheat crop for estimating evaporation by infrared-temperature based energy balance equation. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 39 (1987) 283-297
22. Cleugh H.A., Leuning R., Mu Q., and Running S.W. Regional evaporation estimates from flux tower and MODIS satellite data. Remote Sensing of Environment 106 (2007) 285-304
23. Clothier B.E., Clawson K.L., Pinter P.J., Moran M.S., Reginato R.J., and Jackson R.D. Estimating of soil heat flux from net radiation during the growth of alfalfa. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 37 (1986) 319-329
24. Czajkowski K.P., Goward S.N., Shirey D., and Walz A. Thermal remote sensing of near-surface water vapor. Remote Sensing of Environment 79 (2002) 253-265
25. Czajkowski K.P., Mulhern T., Goward S., Cihlar J., Dubayah R., and Prince S. Biospheric environmental monitoring at BOREAS using AVHRR observations. Journal of Geophysical Research 102 (1997) 29651-29662
26. Dalu G. Satellite remote sensing of atmospheric water vapour. International Journal of Remote Sensing 7 (1986) 1089-1097
27. Daughtry C.S.T., Kustas W.P., Moran M.S., Pinter P.J., Jackson R.D., Brown P.W., et al. Spectral estimates of net radiation and soil heat flux. Remote Sensing of Environment 32 (1990) 111-124
28. Davies J.A., and Allen C.D. Equilibrium, potential and actual evaporation from cropped surfaces in southern Ontario. Journal of Applied Meteorology 12 (1973) 649-657
29. De Bruin H.A.R., and Holtslag A.A.M. A simple parameterization of the surface fluxes of sensible and latent heat during daytime compared with the Penman-Monteith concept. Journal of Applied Meteorology 21 (1982) 1610-1621
30. De Bruin H.A.R., and Stricker J.N.M. Evaporation of grass under non-restricted soil moisture conditions. Hydrological Sciences Journal 45 (2000) 391-406
31. Denmead O.T. Temperature cereals. In: Monteith J.L. (Ed). Vegetation and the atmosphere (1976), Academic Press, London 1-32
32. Eichinger W.E., Parlange M.B., and Stricker H. On the concept of equilibrium evaporation and the value of the Priestley-Taylor coefficient. Water Resources Research 32 (1996) 161-164
33. Entekhabi D., Asrar G.R., Betts A.K., Beven K.J., Bras R.L., Duffy C.J., et al. An agenda for land surface hydrology research and a call for the second international hydrological decade. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 80 (1999) 2043-2058
34. Federer C.A., Vörösmarty C., and Fekete B. Sensitivity of annual evaporation to soil and root properties in two models of contrasting complexity. Journal of Hydrometeorology 4 (2003) 1276-1290
35. Federer C.A., Vörösmarty C.J., and Fekete B. Intercomparison of methods for calculating potential evaporation in regional and global water balance models. Water Resources Research 32 (1996) 2315-2321
36. Fisher J.B., Debiase T.A., Qi Y., Xu M., and Goldstein A.H. Evapotranspiration models compared on a Sierra Nevada forest ecosystem. Environmental Modelling & Software 20 (2005) 783-796
37. Flanagan L.B., Wever L.A., and Carlson P.J. Seasonal and interannual variation in carbon dioxide exchange and carbon balance in a northern temperate grassland. Global Change Biology 8 (2002) 599-615
38. Flint A.L., and Childs S.W. Use of the Priestley-Taylor evaporation equation for soil water limited conditions in a small forest clearcut. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 56 (1991) 247-260
39. Gao X., Huete A.R., Ni W.G., and Miura T. Optical-biophysical relationships of vegetation spectra without background contamination. Remote Sensing of Environment 74 (2000) 609-620
40. Giles D.G., Black T.A., and Spittlehouse D.L. Determination of growing season soil water deficits on a forested slope using water balance analysis. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 15 (1984) 107-114
41. Goetz S.J., Halthore R., Hall F.G., and Markham B. Surface temperature retrieval in a temperature grassland with multi-resolution sensors. Journal of Geophysical Research 100 (1995) 25397-25410
42. Goldstein A.H., Hultman N.E., Fracheboud J.M., Bauer M.R., Panek J.A., Xu M., et al. Effects of climate variability on the carbon dioxide, water, and sensible heat fluxes above a ponderosa pine plantation in the Sierra Nevada (CA). Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 101 (2000) 113-129
43. Gordon L.J., Steffen W., Jonsson B.F., Folke C., Falkenmark M., and Johannessen A. Human modification of global water vapor flows from the land surface. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 102 (2005) 7612-7617
44. Granier A., Biron P., and Lemoine D. Water balance, transpiration and canopy conductance in two beech stands. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 100 (2000) 291-308
45. Hall F.G., Collatz G.J., Los S.O., Brown E., Colstoun D.E., and Landis D. ISLSCP Initiative II: DVD/CD-ROM: NASA (2005)
46. Ham J.M., Heilman J.L., and Lascano R.J. Determination of soil water evaporation and transpiration from energy balance and stem flow measurements. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 52 (1990) 287-301
47. Hansen L.P. Large sample properties of generalized method of moments estimators. Econometrica 50 (1982) 1029-1054
48. Hansen J., Lacis A., Ruedy R., and Sato M. Potential climate impact of Mount-Pinatubo eruption. Geophysical Research Letters 19 (1992) 215-218
49. Hare F.K. Long-term annual surface heat and water balances over Canada and the United States south of 60 N: Reconciliation of precipitation, run-off and temperature fields. Atmosphere-Ocean 18 (1980) 127-153
50. Henning D. Atlas of the surface heat balance of the continents (1989), Gebruder Borntraeger, Berlin
51. Hollinger D.Y., Goltz S.M., Davidson E.A., Lee J.T., Tu K., and Valentine H.T. Seasonal patterns and environmental control of carbon dioxide and water vapour exchange in an ecotonal boreal forest. Global Change Biology 5 (1999) 891-902
52. Houborg R.M., and Soegaard H. Regional simulation of ecosystem CO2 and water vapor exchange for agricultural land using NOAA AVHRR and Terra MODIS satellite data. Application to Zealand, Denmark. Remote Sensing of Environment 93 (2004) 150-167
53. Huete A. personal communication (2006)
54. Huete A., Didan K., Miura T., Rodriguez E.P., Gao X., and Ferreira L.G. Overview of the radiometric and biophysical performance of the MODIS vegetation indices. Remote Sensing of Environment 83 (2002) 195-213
55. Huete A.R. A soil-adjusted vegetation index (SAVI). Remote Sensing of Environment 25 (1988) 295-309
56. Impens I., and Lemur R. Extinction of net radiation in different crop canopies. Theoretical and Applied Climatology 17 (1969) 403-412
57. Irmak S., Irmak A., Jones J.W., Howell T.A., Jacobs J.M., Allen R.G., et al. Predicting daily net radiation using minimum climatological data. Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering 129 (2003) 256-269
58. Jarvis P.G., and McNaughton K.G. Stomatal control of transpiration: scaling up from leaf to region. Advances in Ecological Research 15 (1986) 1-49
59. Jin M., Dickinson R.E., and Vogelmann A.M. A comparison of CCM2-BATS skin temperature and surface air temperature with satellite and surface observations. Journal of Climate 10 (1997) 1505-1524
60. June T., Evans J.R., and Farquhar G.D. A simple new equation for the reversible temperature dependence of photosynthetic electron transport: A study on soybean leaf. Functional Plant Biology 31 (2004) 275-283
61. Jury W.A., and Tanner C.B. Advection modification of the Priestley and Taylor evapotranspiration formula. Agronomy Journal (1975) 67
62. Kalluri S.N., and Dubayah R.O. Comparison of atmospheric correction models for thermal bands of the Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer over FIFE. Journal of Geophysical Research 100 (1995) 25411-25418
63. Kidwell K. NOAA polar orbiter data user's guide. NCDC/SDSD. National Climatic Data Center (1991)
64. Knohl A., Schulze E.D., Kolle O., and Buchmann N. Large carbon uptake by an unmanaged 250-year-old deciduous forest in Central Germany. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 118 (2003) 151-167
65. Kustas W.P., and Daughtry C.S.T. Estimation of the soil heat flux/net radiation ratio from spectral data. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 39 (1990) 205-223
66. Kustas W.P., and Norman J.M. Use of remote sensing for evapotranspiration monitoring over land surfaces. Hydrological Sciences Journal 41 (1996) 495-516
67. Kustas W.P., Daughtry C.S.T., and Vanoevelen P.J. Analytical treatment of the relationships between soil heat flux/net radiation ratio and vegetation indices. Remote Sensing of Environment 46 (1993) 319-330
68. Lakshmi V., and Susskind J. Comparison of TOVS derived land surface variables with ground observations. Journal of Geophysical Research 105 (2000) 2179-2190
69. Lakshmi V., Small J., and Goetz S. Comparison of surface meteorological variables from TOVS and AVHRR. Remote Sensing of Environment 79 (2002) 176-188
70. Lambert J. Photometria Sive de Mensura et Gradibus Luminus, Colorum et Umbrae (1760), Eberhard Klett
71. Lawrence D.M., and Slingo J.M. An annual cycle of vegetation in a GCM. Part I: implementation and impact on evaporation. Climate Dynamics 22 (2004) 87-105
72. Leuning R., Cleugh H.A., Zegelin S.J., and Hughes D. Carbon and water fluxes over a temperate Eucalyptus forest and a tropical wet/dry savanna in Australia: Measurements and comparison with MODIS remote sensing estimates. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 129 (2005) 151-173
73. Los S.O., Collatz G.J., Malmstrom C.M., Pollack N.H., DeFries R.S., Bounoua L., et al. A global 9-year biophysical land surface dataset from NOAA AVHRR data. Journal of Hydrometeorology 1 (2000) 183-199
74. Madsen H., Rasmussen P.F., and Rosbjerg D. Comparison of annual maximum series and partial duration series methods for modeling extreme hydrologic events 1. At-site modeling. Water Resources Research 33 (1997) 747-757
75. Martin T.A., Brown K.J., Cermak J., Ceulemans R., Kucera J., Meinzer F.C., et al. Crown conductance and tree and stand transpiration in a second-growth Abies amabilis forest. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 27 (1997) 797-808
76. Massman W.J. A surface-energy balance method for partitioning evapotranspiration data into plant and soil components for a surface with partial canopy cover. Water Resources Research 28 (1992) 1723-1732
77. Massman W.J., and Ham J.M. An evaluation of a surface energy balance method for partitioning ET data into plant and soil components for a surface with partial canopy cover. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 67 (1994) 253-267
78. Maurer E.P., Wood A.W., Adam J.C., Lettenmaier D.P., and Nijssen B. A long-term hydrologically based dataset of land surface fluxes and states for the conterminous United States. Journal of Climate 15 (2002) 3237-3251
79. McNaughton K.G., and Black T.A. A study of evapotranspiration from a Douglas fir forest using the energy balance approach. Water Resources Research 9 (1973) 1579-1590
80. McNaughton K.G., and Jarvis P.G. Effects of spatial scale on stomatal control of transpiration. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 54 (1991) 279-302
81. McNaughton K.G., and Spriggs T.W. A mixed-layer model for regional evaporation. Boundary-Layer Meteorology 34 (1986) 243-262
82. Mintz Y., and Walker G.K. Global fields of soil moisture and land surface evapotranspiration dervied from observed precipitation and surface air temperature. Journal of Applied Meteorology 32 (1993) 1305-1334
83. Moncrieff J.B., Massheder J.M., De Bruin H.A.R., Elbers J., Friborg T., Heusinkveld B., et al. A system to measure surface fluxes of momentum, sensible heat, water vapour and carbon dioxide. Journal of Hydrology 189 (1997) 589-611
84. Monson R.K., Turnipseed A.A., Sparks J.P., Harley P.C., Scott-Denton L.E., Sparks K., et al. Carbon sequestration in a high-elevation, subalpine forest. Global Change Biology 8 (2002) 459-478
85. Monteith J.L. Evaporation and the environment. Symposium of the Society of Exploratory Biology 19 (1965) 205-234
86. Morton F.I. Operational estimates of areal evapotranspiration and their significance to the science and practice of hydrology. Journal of Hydrology 66 (1983) 1-76
87. Motell C., Porter J., Foster J., Bevis M., and Businger S. Comparison of precipitable water over Hawaii using AVHRR-based split-window techniques, GPS and radiosondes. International Journal of Remote Sensing 23 (2002) 2335-2339
88. Mukammal E.I., and Neumann H.H. Application of the Priestley-Taylor evaporation model to assess the influence of soil moisture on the evaporation from a large weighing lysimter and class A pan. Boundary-Layer Meteorology 12 (1977) 243-256
89. New M., Hulme M., and Jones P. Representing twentieth-century space-time climate variability. Part I: Development of a 1961-90 mean monthly terrestrial climatology. Journal of Climate 12 (1999) 829-856
90. New M., Hulme M., and Jones P. Representing twentieth-century space-time climate variability. Part II: Development of 1901-1996 monthly grids of terrestrial surface climate. Journal of Climate 13 (2000) 2217-2238
91. Nishida K., Nemani R.R., Running S.W., and Glassy J.M. An operational remote sensing algorithm of land surface evaporation. Journal of Geophysical Research-Atmospheres 108 (2003) 4270
92. Norman J.M., Kustas W.P., and Humes K.S. Source approach for estimating soil and vegetation energy fluxes in observations of directional radiometric surface-temperature. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 77 (1995) 263-293
93. Ol'dekop E.M. On evaporation from the surface of river basins: Trans. Met. Obs. lur-evskogo. Univ. Tartu Vol. 4 (1911)
94. Pike J.G. The estimation of annual run-off from meteorological data in a tropical climate. Journal of Hydrology 2 (1964) 116-123
95. Pinker R.T., and Laszlo I. Modeling surface solar irradiance for satellite applications on a global scale. Journal of Applied Meteorology 31 (1992) 194-211
96. Potter C.S., Randerson J.T., Field C.B., Matson P.A., Vitousek P.M., Mooney H.A., et al. Terrestrial ecosystem production: A process based model based on global satellite and surface data. Global Biogeochemical Cycles 7 (1993) 811-841
97. Priestley C.H.B., and Taylor R.J. On the assessment of surface heat flux and evaporation using large scale parameters. Monthly Weather Review 100 (1972) 81-92
98. Prince S.D., Goetz S.J., Dubayah R.O., Czajkowski K.P., and Thawley M. Inference of surface and air temperature, atmospheric precipitable water and vapor pressure deficit using AVHRR satellite observations: Validation of algorithms. Journal of Hydrology 212-213 (1998) 230-250
99. Ross J. Radiative transfer in plant communities. In: Monteith J.L. (Ed). Vegetation and the atmosphere (1976), Academic Press, London 13-56
100. Rossow W.B., Walker A.W., Beuschel D.E., and Roiter M.D. International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project (ISCCP): Documentation of new cloud data sets. World Meteorological Organization 115 (1996)
101. Running S.W., Thornton P.E., Nemani R.R., and Glassy J.M. Global terrestrial gross and net primary productivity from the Earth Observing System. In: Sala O.E., Jackson R.B., Mooney H.A., and Howarth R.W. (Eds). Methods in ecosystem science (2000), Springer-Verlag New York Inc, New York
102. Rushdi A.M., and Kafrawy K.F. Uncertainty propagation in fault-tree analyses using an exact method of moments. Microelectronics Reliability 28 (1988) 945-965
103. Schmid H.P., Grimmond C.S.B., Cropley F., Offerle B., and Su H.B. Measurements of CO2 and energy fluxes over a mixed hardwood forest in the mid-western United States. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 103 (2000) 357-374
104. Schreiber P. Über die Beziehungen zwischen dem Niederschlag und der Wasserführung der Flüße in Mitteleuropa. Zeitschrift fur Meteorologie 21 (1904) 441-452
105. Schubert S., Suarez M., Park C.K., and Moorthi S. GCM simulations of intraseasonal variability in the Pacific North-American region. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 50 (1993) 1991-2007
106. Self S., Rampino M.R., Zhao J., and Katz M.G. Volcanic aerosol perturbations and strong El Nino events: No general correlation. Geophysical Research Letters 24 (1997) 1247-1250
107. Sellers P.J., Meeson B.W., Hall F.G., Asrar G., Murphy R.E., Schiffer R.A., et al. Remote sensing of the land surface for studies of global change: Models-algorithms-experiments. Remote Sensing of Environment 51 (1995) 3-26
108. Shuttleworth W.J., and Calder I.R. Has the Priestley-Taylor equation any relevance to forest evaporation?. Journal of Applied Meteorology 18 (1979) 639-646
109. Shuttleworth W.J., and Wallace J.S. Evaporation from sparse crops-An energy combination theory. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society 111 (1985) 839-855
110. Shuttleworth W.J., Gash J.H., Lloyd C.R., Moore C.J., Roberts J., Filho A.O.M., et al. Eddy correlation measurements of energy partition for Amazonian forest. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society 110 (1984) 1143-1162
111. Sims D.A., Rahman A.F., Cordova V.D., Baldocchi D.D., Flanagan L.B., Goldstein A.H., et al. Midday values of gross CO2 flux and light use efficiency during satellite overpasses can be used to directly estimate eight-day mean flux. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 131 (2005) 1-12
112. Smith W.L. Note on the relationship between total precipitable water and surface dew point. Journal of Applied Meteorology 5 (1966) 726-727
113. Sobrino J.A., and El Kharraz J. Surface temperature and water vapour retrieval from MODIS data. International Journal of Remote Sensing 24 (2003) 5161-5182
114. Stackhouse P.W., Gupta S.K., Cox S.J., Chiacchio M., and Mikovitz J.C. The WCRP/GEWEX Surface Radiation Budget Project Release 2: An assessment of surface fluxes at 1° resolution. In: Smith W.L., and Timofeyev Y.M. (Eds). IRS 2000: Current problems in atmospheric radiation (2000), International Radiation Symposium, St. Petersburg, Russia 24-29
115. Steven M.D., Malthus T.J., Baret F., Xu H., and Chopping M.J. Intercalibration of vegetation indices from different sensors systems. Remote Sensing of Environment 88 (2003) 412-422
116. Stewart R.B., and Rouse W.R. Substantiation of the Priestley and Taylor parameter alpha = 1.26 for potential evaporation in high latitudes. Journal of Applied Meteorology 16 (1977) 649-650
117. Stone P.H., Chow S., and Quirr W.J. July climate and a comparison of January and July climates simulated by GISS general circulation model. Monthly Weather Review 105 (1977) 170-194
118. Su H., Wood E.F., McCabe M.F., and Su Z. Evaluation of remotely sensed evapotranspiration over the CEOP EOP-1 reference sites. Journal of the Meteorological Society of Japan 85A (2007) 439-459
119. Tateishi R., and Ahn C.H. Mapping evapotranspiration and water balance for global land surfaces. ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing 51 (1996) 209-215
120. Thornthwaite C.W. An approach toward a rational classification of climate. Geographical Review 38 (1948) 55-94
121. Turc L. Le bilan d'eau des sols. Relation entre la précipitation, l'évaporation et l'écoulement. Annales Agronomiques 5 (1954) 491-569
122. Turner M.G. Landscape ecology: The effect of pattern on process. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 20 (1989) 171-197
123. Vörösmarty C.J., Federer C.A., and Schloss A.L. Potential evaporation functions compared on US watersheds: Possible implications for global-scale water balance and terrestrial ecosystem modeling. Journal of Hydrology 207 (1998) 147-169
124. Warnick K.F., and Chew W.C. Error analysis of the moment method. IEEE Antennas and Propagation Magazine 46 (2004) 38-53
125. Willmott C.J. Some comments on the evaluation of model performance. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 11 (1982) 1309-1313
126. Wilson K., Goldstein A., Falge E., Aubinet M., Baldocchi D., Berbigier P., et al. Energy balance closure at FLUXNET sites. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 113 (2002) 223-243
127. Wofsy S.C., Goulden M.L., Munger J.W., Fan S.M., Bakwin P.S., Daube B.C., et al. Net exchange of CO2 in a mid-latitude forest. Science 260 (1993) 1314-1317
128. Xiao X., Hollinger D., Aber J.D., Goltz M., Davidson E., Zhang Q., et al. Satellite-based modeling of gross primary production in an evergreen needleleaf forest. Remote Sensing of Environment 89 (2003) 519-534
129. Xu L.K., and Baldocchi D.D. Seasonal variation in carbon dioxide exchange over a Mediterranean annual grassland in California. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 123 (2004) 79-96
130. Zhang Q., Xiao X., Braswell B.H., Linder E., Aber J., and Moore B. Estimating seasonal dynamics of biophysical and biochemical parameters in a deciduous forest using MODIS data and a radiative transfer model. Remote Sensing of Environment 99 (2005) 357-371