Loving and the legacy of unintended consequences

Wisconsin Law Review

Volumn 2007, Issue 2, 2007, Pages 239-281

  Moran, Rachel F ^a  

^a University of California School of Law ^*

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EID: 38049101245     PISSN: 0043650X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (324)

1. The Art of Fiction No. 29: Katherine Anne Porter, PARIS REV., Winter-Spring 1963, at 1, 16, available at http://www.parisreview.com/media/4569_PORTER.pdf.
2. 388 U.S. 1 (1967).
3. Randall Kennedy attributed the "resolutely conventional, legalistic opinion" in Loving to Chief Justice Earl Warren's desire to avoid the criticisms that resulted from his foray into social science evidence in Brown v. Board of Education, 347 U.S. 483 (1954), which declared state-mandated segregation of public schools unconstitutional. RANDALL KENNEDY, INTERRACIAL INTIMACIES: SEX, MARRIAGE, IDENTITY, AND ADOPTION 275 (2003). In addition, a colleague on the Court, Justice Potter Stewart, described "motherhood, marriage, family, flag, and the like" as the "eternal, rather bromidic platitudes in which [Chief Justice Warren] sincerely believed" and which formed the foundation of his jurisprudence.
4. BERNARD SCHWARTZ, DECISION: HOW THE SUPREME COURT DECIDES CASES 88 (1997).
5. 388 U.S. at 2.
6. See id. at 3.
7. See id.
8. See id.
9. Id. at 11.
10. See id.
11. See id. at 12.
12. 106 U.S. 583 (1882).
13. 388 U.S. at 10.
14. Id. at 11.
15. Id. (quoting Hirabayashi v. United States, 320 U.S. 81, 100 (1943)).
16. Id.
17. Id. at 13 (Stewart, J., concurring).
18. Id. at 12.
19. See Stephen Kanter, The Griswold Diagrams: Toward a Unified Theory of Constitutional Rights, 28 CARDOZO L. REV. 623, 678-83 (2006) (describing the Court's concerns about relying on the unenumerated right to privacy to protect sexual and marital liberty in Griswold v. Connecticut, 381 U.S. 479 (1965));
20. Chase J. Sanders, Ninth Life: An Interpretive Theory of the Ninth Amendment, 69 IND. L.J. 759, 769-73 (1994);
21. William N. Eskridge, Jr., Some Effects of Identity-Based Social Movements on Constitutional Law in the Twentieth Century, 100 MICH. L. REV. 2062, 2239-41 (2002).
22. ED CRAY, CHIEF JUSTICE: A BIOGRAPHY OF EARL WARREN 452-53 (1997).
23. Loving, 388 U.S. at 12.
24. Id.
25. Id. (quoting Skinner v. Oklahoma, 316 U.S. 535, 541 (1942)).
26. Id.
27. See Brief of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People as Amicus Curiae Supporting Appellants at 7-9, Loving v. Virginia, 388 U.S. 1 (1967) (No. 395); Brief of Amici Curiae Japanese American Citizens League at 17-20, Loving v. Virginia, 388 U.S. 1 (1967) (No. 395).
28. Loving, 388 U.S. at 5.
29. 379 U.S. 184, 184 (1964).
30. Transcript of Record at 58, McLaughlin v. Florida, 379 U.S. 184 (1964) (No. 585) (testimony of Detective Nicholas Valeriani).
31. Id. at 23, 26, 36, 41, 46, 82 (testimony of Mrs. Dora Goodnick, landlady; Detective Stanley Marcus; Detective Nicholas Valeriani; and Josephine DeCesare, Secretary, City Manager's Office, Miami Beach).
32. McLaughlin, 379 U.S. at 188-96.
33. See ROBERT J. SICKELS, RACE, MARRIAGE, AND THE LAW 102-03 (1972);
34. see also Ariela R. Dubler, From McLaughlin v. Florida to Lawrence v. Texas: Sexual Freedom and the Road to Marriage, 106 COLUM. L. REV. 1165, 1167-68 (2006) (critiquing the popular view that McLaughlin was merely a stepping stone to Loving).
35. See Loving, 388 U.S. at 11-12.
36. SICKELS, supra note 30, at 76.
37. Id.
38. VA. CODE ANN. § 20-54 (1960).
39. Id. § 1-14.
40. Loving, 388 U.S. at 5 n.4 (quoting VA. CODE ANN. § 20-54) (explaining the origins of the Pocahontas exception).
41. VA. CODE ANN. § 1-14.
42. Loving, 388 U.S. at 11-12 n.11.
43. Id.
44. 347 U.S. 483 (1954).
45. Pub. L. No. 88-352, 78 Stat. 241 (1964).
46. RACHEL F. MORAN, INTERRACIAL INTIMACY: THE REGULATION OF RACE AND ROMANCE 99 (2001).
47. Id.
48. G. REGINALD DANIEL, MORE THAN BLACK?: MULTIRACIAL IDENTITY AND THE NEW RACIAL ORDER 43 (2002).
49. Loving v. Virginia, 388 U.S. 1, 3 (1967); see also SICKELS, supra note 30, at 80.
50. DANIEL, supra note 44, at 60-61.
51. WENDY KLINE, BUILDING A BETTER RACE: GENDER, SEXUALITY, AND EUGENICS FROM THE TURN OF THE CENTURY TO THE BABY BOOM 103-04 (2001);
52. Paul A. Lombardo, Miscegenation, Eugenics,and Racism: A Historical Footnote to Loving v. Virginia, 21 U.C. DAVIS L. REV. 421, 432-34, 437-40 (1988).
53. 198 P.2d 17 (Cal. 1948).
54. MORAN, supra note 42, at 84.
55. See Perez, 198 P.2d. at 22-25.
56. Id. at 27.
57. Id. (quoting Franz Boas, Race, in 7 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE SOCIAL SCIENCES 25, 26).
58. Id. at 27-28 (citation omitted).
59. Id. at 23.
60. See Mary Dudziak, Desegregation as a Cold War Imperative, 41 STAN. L. REV. 61, 77-117 (1988) (describing the intense international scrutiny of civil rights in the United States after World War II and before the Brown decision).
61. Loving v. Virginia, 388 U.S. 1, 11-12 (1967).
62. See Brown v. Bd. of Educ., 347 U.S. 483 (1954).
63. Cf. MORAN, supra note 42, at 7.
64. See id. at 88.
65. A. LEON HIGGINBOTHAM, JR., IN THE MATTER OF COLOR: RACE AND THE AMERICAN LEGAL PROCESS: THE COLONIAL PERIOD 22-24 (Oxford 1980);
66. Hrishi Karthikeyan & Gabriel J. Chin, Preserving Racial Identity: Population Patterns and the Application of Anti-Miscegenation Statutes to Asian Americans, 1910-1950, 9 AS. L.J. 1, 19-31 (2002).
67. MORAN, supra note 42, at 17-18, 61.
68. See McLaughlin v. Florida, 379 U.S. 184, 191-93 (1964).
69. See id. at 193-94.
70. See id. at 195.
71. There is evidence that Dewey McLaughlin and Connie Hoffman would not have been able to marry in any event because they were still married to other people at the time they were prosecuted. Yet, even divorce would not have freed them to legitimate their relationship through a trip to the altar. Dubler, supra note 30, at 1171.
72. Loving v. Virginia, 388 U.S. 1, 10-12 (1967).
73. See id. at 13 (Stewart, J. concurring).
74. Perez v. Sharp, 198 P.2d 17, 19 (Cal. 1948); accord Loving, 388 U.S. at 11.
75. Indeed, Chief Justice Warren singled out the California decision in a footnote in the Loving opinion. 388 U.S. at 6 n.5. For a discussion of whether Perez influenced Chief Justice Warren's analysis, see R.A. Lenhardt, The Story of Perez v. Sharp: Forgotten Lessons on Race, Law, and Marriage, in RACE LAW STORIES (Rachel F. Moran & Devon Carbado eds., forthcoming 2008).
76. Herbert Wechsler, Toward Neutral Principles of Constitutional Law, 73 HARV. L. REV. 1, 34 (1959).
77. Robert A. Pratt, Crossing the Color Line: A Historical Assessment and Personal Narrative of Loving v. Virginia, 41 HOW. L.J. 229, 235 (1998).
78. Id. at 244.
79. PETER WALLENSTEIN, TELL THE COURT I LOVE MY WIFE: RACE, MARRIAGE, AND LAW - AN AMERICAN HISTORY 6 (2002).
80. See Loving, 388 U.S. at 12.
81. RENEE C. ROMANO, RACE MIXING: BLACK-WHITE MARRIAGE IN POSTWAR AMERICA 12-14 (2003).
82. See Dara Orenstein, Void for Vagueness: Mexicans and the Collapse of Miscegenation Law in California, 74 PAC. HIST. REV. 367, 367-68 (2005).
83. See id. at 374-75.
84. See id. at 406-07.
85. See id. at 394.
86. ROMANO, supra note 75, at 18-21.
87. ALEX LUBIN, ROMANCE AND RIGHTS: THE POLITICS OF INTERRACIAL INTIMACY, 1945-1954, at 99 (2005).
88. See id. at 99-101.
89. Id. at 100 (quoting NAT BRANDT, HARLEM AT WAR: THE BLACK EXPERIENCE IN WORLD WAR II 106 (1996)).
90. Id.
91. See id. at 101.
92. Id.
93. See id. at 102.
94. Id. at 107.
95. See id.
96. See id. at 109.
97. See id. at 108.
98. Id. at 110-13.
99. See id. at 114.
100. Id. at 116 (quoting Private Frank Topsail).
101. See id. at 117.
102. Id.
103. See id. at 118.
104. See id.
105. See id. at 118-21.
106. NANCY COTT, PUBLIC VOWS: A HISTORY OF MARRIAGE AND THE NATION 189-91 (2000);
107. SUSAN M. HARTMANN, THE HOME FRONT AND BEYOND: AMERICAN WOMEN IN THE 1940S 163-70 (2003);
108. Gretchen Ritter, Of War and Virtue: Gender, American Citizenship, and Veterans' Benefits After World War II, in COMPARATIVE STUDY OF CONSCRIPTION IN THE ARMED FORCES 201-26 (Lars Mjoset and Stephen Van Holde eds. 2002).
109. ALICE KESSLER-HARRIS, OUT TO WORK: A HISTORY OF WAGE-EARNING WOMEN IN THE UNITED STATES 295-99 (20th Anniversary ed. 2003).
110. KLINE, supra note 47, at 152-56; ROMANO, supra note 75, at 27-28.
111. Michael J. Rosenfeld & Byung-Soo Kim, The Independence of Young Adults and the Rise of Interracial and Same-Sex Unions, 70 AM. SOC. REV. 541, 542-43 (2005).
112. Id. at 543.
113. MORAN, supra note 42, at 91-92.
114. Cf. Dubler, supra note 30, at 1186.
115. See Michele Mitchell, Silences Broken, Silences Kept: Gender and Sexuality in African-American History, 11 GENDER & HISTORY 433, 437-38 (1999) (describing the "politics of respectability" that emerged in the African-American community in the late 1800s and early 1900s).
116. The Slaughter-House Cases, 83 U.S. (16 Wall.) 36 (1873); The Civil Rights Cases, 109 U.S. 3 (1883). For a discussion of how these cases undermined federal citizenship and sounded the death knell for Reconstruction, see PHILIP A. KLINKNER WITH ROGERS M. SMITH, THE UNSTEADY MARCH: THE RISE AND DECLINE OF RACIAL EQUALITY IN AMERICA 72-135 (1999);
117. Rebecca Zietlow, Congressional Enforcement of Civil Rights and John Bingham's Theory of Citizenship, 36 AKRON L. REV. 717, 746-52 (2003).
118. See supra notes 5-8 and accompanying text.
119. 350 U.S. 891 (1955), appeal reconsidered, 350 U.S. 985 (1956).
120. MORAN, supra note 42, at 89.
121. See id.
122. Id.
123. See id.; Peter Wallenstein, Race, Marriage, and the Law of Freedom: Alabama and Virginia, 1860s-1960s, 70 CHI.-KENT L. REV. 371, 416-17 (1994).
124. MORAN, supra note 42, at 90.
125. 350 U.S. at 985.
126. WALTER F. MURPHY, ELEMENTS OF JUDICIAL STRATEGY 193 (1964).
127. Id.; see also WALLENSTEIN, supra note 73, at 418-19 ("[T]o throw a decision of this Court other than validating this legislation into the vortex of the present disquietude would . . . seriously, I believe very seriously, embarrass the carrying out of the Court's decree of last May [in Brown]." (quoting Justice John Marshall Harlan)).
128. CRAY, supra note 19, at 451.
129. 379 U.S. 184 (1964).
130. See RAFAEL PEREZ-TORRES, MESTIZAJE: CRITICAL USES OF RACE IN CHICANO CULTURE 4-11 (2006).
131. See Pub. L. 89-236, 79 Stat. 911 (1965) (codified as amended at 8 U.S.C. §§ 1151-1152 (2000)) (amending the Immigration and Nationality Act).
132. Jennifer Lee & Frank D. Bean, America's Changing Color Lines: Immigration, Race/Ethnicity, and Multiracial Identification, 30 ANN. REV. SOC. 221, 222 (2004).
133. Deborah Ramirez, Multicultural Empowerment: It's Not Just Black and White Anymore, 47 STAN. L. REV. 957, 960-62 (1995) (noting that during the 1960s and 1970s, only one out of every ten Americans identified as non white, nearly all of whom were black; in the 1990s, as a result of intermarriage and immigration, one out of four Americans identified as nonwhite, and only half of these were black).
134. Pierrette Hondagneu-Sotelo & Ernestine Avila, "I'm Here, but I'm There": The Meanings of Latina Transnational Motherhood, 11 GENDER & SOC. 548, 552-53 (1997).
135. See, e.g., id.; Rhacel Salazar Parrenas, The Care Crisis in the Philippines: Children and Transnational Families in the New Global Economy, in GLOBAL WOMAN: NANNIES, MAIDS, AND SEX WORKERS IN THE NEW ECONOMY 39, 49-52 (Barbara Ehrenreich & Arlie Russell Hochschild eds., 2004).
136. See, e.g., Douglas S. Massey, The Social Organization of Mexican Migration to the United States, 487 ANNALS 102, 104-06 (1986);
137. Norma Chinchilla & Nora Hamilton, Changing Networks and Alliances in a Transnational Context: Salvadoran and Guatemalan Immigrants in Southern California, SOC. JUST., Fall 1999, at 4, 10-11.
138. CHRISTOPHER LASCH, Introduction to HAVEN IN A HEARTLESS WORLD: THE FAMILY BESIEGED xiii (1977). Indeed, Lasch questions whether marriage and family have succeeded in insulating Americans from the hardships of impersonal public life. Id. at xvii-xviii.
139. See KIM M. WILLIAMS, MARK ONE OR MORE: CIVIL RIGHTS IN MULTIRACIAL AMERICA 21 (2006).
140. See id.
141. See id. at 42-44; MORAN, supra note 42, at 9-10, 160-65.
142. Frank James, Panel Rejects Pleas to Add "Multiracial" as Official Category, CHI. TRIB., July 9, 1997, at 3.
143. WILLIAMS, supra note 129, at 58-60; MORAN, supra note 42, at 162-65.
144. NICHOLAS A. JONES, U.S. CENSUS BUREAU, U.S. DEP'T OF COMMERCE, CENSUS 2000 SPECIAL REPORTS 22, WE THE PEOPLE OF MORE THAN ONE RACE IN THE UNITED STATES 1 (2005), available at http://www.census.gov/prod/ 2005pubs/censr-22.pdf.
145. Id. at 4.
146. See id. at 6.
147. See id. at 7, 10.
148. NICHOLAS A. JONES & AMY SYMENS SMITH, THE TWO OR MORE RACES POPULATION: 2000 at 2-6 (2001), available at http://www.census.gov/prod/2001pubs/c2kbr01-6.pdf.
149. See JONES, supra note 134, at 5-6.
150. See Eduardo Bonilla-Silva & David G. Embrick, Black, Honorary White, White: The Future of Race in the United States?, in MIXED MESSAGES: MULTIRACIAL IDENTITIES IN THE "COLOR-BLIND" ERA 33, 46-47 (David L. Brunsma ed., 2006);
151. Eduardo Bonilla-Silva, From Bi-Racial to Tri-Racial: Towards a New System of Racial Stratification in the USA, 27 ETHNIC & RACIAL STUD. 931, 942-44 (2004).
152. F. James Davis, Defining Race: Comparative Perspectives, in MIXED MESSAGES: MULTIRACIAL IDENTITIES IN THE "COLOR-BLIND" ERA, supra note 140, at 15, 16;
153. Rainier Spencer, Assessing Multiracial Identity: The Challenge of Hypodescent, 4 ETHNICITIES 357, 361-62 (2004).
154. F. JAMES DAVIS, WHO IS BLACK?: ONE NATION'S DEFINITION 21 (1991).
155. MORAN, supra note 42, at 160-61.
156. See id. at 161.
157. See id.
158. Id.
159. See id. at 166.
160. See id.; WILLIAMS, supra note 129, at 47-48.
161. MORAN, supra note 42, at 166 (quoting Review of Federal Measurements of Race and Ethnicity: Hearings Before the Subcomm. on Census, Statistics and Postal Personnel of the H. Comm. on Post Office and Civil Service, 103d Cong. 273 (1993) (statement of Arthur A. Fletcher)).
162. FRANK HOBBS & NICOLE STOOPS, U.S. CENSUS BUREAU, U.S. DEP'T OF COMMERCE, CENSUS 2000 SPECIAL REPORTS 4, DEMOGRAPHIC TRENDS IN THE 20TH CENTURY 77 (2002), available at http://www.census.gov/prod/2002pubs/censr-4.pdf.
163. Id. at A-30 tbl.9.
164. See JONES, supra note 134, at 1 tbl.1.
165. See id.
166. Jennifer Senior, Dreaming of Obama, NEW YORK MAG., Oct. 2, 2006, at 28, 32-38;
167. Gary Kamiya, Cablinasian Like Me, SALON, Apr. 30, 1997, http://www.salon.com/april97/tiger970430.html. It is worth noting that in labeling himself "Cablinasian" rather than black, Tiger Woods also characterized his father as multiracial (that is, black, white, and Native American). See id.
168. WILLIAMS, supra note 129, at 29-37 (describing how the multiracial movement exemplifies the politics of race as a social and legal construct).
169. See RAINIER SPENCER, CHALLENGING MULTIRACIAL IDENTITY 70 (2006).
170. See id.; Rainier Spencer, New Racial Identities, Old Arguments: Continuing Biological Reification, in MIXED MESSAGES: MULTIRACIAL IDENTITIES IN THE "COLOR- BLIND" ERA, supra note 140, at 83, 85-86, 92-96; Spencer, supra note 141, at 369-74.
171. African-American Lives (PBS television broadcast Feb. 1 and 8, 2006).
172. Id.
173. Id.
174. See id.; Troy Duster, Deep Roots and Tangled Branches, CHRON. HIGHER EDUC., Feb. 3, 2006, at 13;
175. John Leonard, Black Like Me?, N.Y. MAG., Feb. 6, 2006, at 73.
176. African-American Lives, supra note 158.
177. Id.
178. Duster, supra note 161, at 13; see also Darryl Fears, Out of Africa - But From Which Tribe?, WASH. POST, Oct. 19, 2006, at A3 (reporting on doubts about the utility of mitochondrial DNA testing to determine tribal ancestry among blacks; this was the technique employed in the PBS special African American Lives).
179. See, e.g., Green v. County Sch. Bd., 391 U.S. 430, 437-38 (1968); Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Bd. of Educ., 402 U.S. 1, 15 (1971).
180. Loving v. Virginia, 388 U.S. 1, 11-12 (1967).
181. MORAN, supra note 42, at 8.
182. See Sharon M. Lee & Barry Edmonston, New Marriages, New Families: U.S. Racial and Hispanic Intermarriage, POPULATION BULL., June 2005, at 3, 3. According to a 1993 Gallup poll, 86 percent of blacks, 79 percent of Hispanics, and 66 percent of whites expressed their acceptance of interracial relationships. See id. Overall, 77 percent were open to black-white dating. See id. Only 10 percent supported antimiscegenation laws. See id. By contrast, a 1958 Gallup poll showed that only 4 percent of white Americans approved of intermarriage between blacks and whites. KENNEDY, supra note 3, at 88.
183. Lee & Edmonston, supra note 168, at 7, 11.
184. See id. at 12 & tbl.2.
185. See id. at 25 & tbl.6.
186. See id. at 12 & tbl.2.
187. See id. at 7 (noting that 99 percent of all married couples were of the same race in 1970, while over 94 percent were in 2000).
188. Euel Elliott & Andrew I.E. Ewoh, The Evolution of an Issue: The Rise and Decline of Affirmative Action, POL'Y STUD. REV., June 22, 2000, at 212.
189. For an article setting forth the concept of colorblind segregation in the context of neighborhood residential patterns and public housing, see Michelle Wilde Anderson, Colorblind Segregation: Equal Protection as a Bar to Neighborhood Integration, 92 CALIF. L. REV. 841, 879-83 (2004).
190. See Neil Gotanda, A Critique of "Our Constitution is Color-Blind," 44 STAN. L. REV. 1, 6-7, 40-52 (1991).
191. See, e.g., Freeman v. Pitts, 503 U.S. 467, 495 (1992); Bd. of Educ. v. Dowell, 498 U.S. 237, 242-43 (1991). See generally Gary Orfield, Turning Back to Segregation, in DISMANTLING DESEGREGATION: THE QUIET REVERSAL OF BROWN V. BOARD OF EDUCATION 1, 1-5, 19-22 (Gary Orfield & Susan E. Eaton eds., 1996).
192. 106 U.S. 583 (1883).
193. See id. at 585; MORAN, supra note 42, at 80-81.
194. 163 U.S. 537, 547-48 (1896).
195. Gong Lum v. Rice, 275 U.S. 78, 86-87 (1927); see also Cumming v. Richmond County Bd. of Educ., 175 U.S. 528, 543-44 (1899).
196. J. HARVIE WILKINSON III, FROM BROWN TO BAKKE: THE SUPREME COURT AND SCHOOL INTEGRATION: 1954-1978, at 17 (1979);
197. C. VANN WOODWARD, THE STRANGE CAREER OF JIM CROW 97-102 (3d ed. 1974).
198. See John Charles Boger, Willful Colorblindness: The New Racial Piety and the Resegregation of Public Schools, 78 N.C. L. REV. 1719, 1722-29 (2000);
199. see also Cynthia L. Estlund, Working Together: The Workplace, Civil Society, and the Law, 89 GEO. L.J. 1, 13-19, 78-94 (2000);
200. Donald E. Lively & Stephen Plass, Equal Protection: The Jurisprudence of Denial and Evasion, 40 AM. U. L. REV. 1307, 1323-24, 1336-46 (1991).
201. WILLIAM N. ESKRIDGE, JR. & DARREN R. SPEDALE, GAY MARRIAGE: FOR BETTER OR FOR WORSE?: WHAT WE'VE LEARNED FROM THE EVIDENCE 16 (2006).
202. See id.
203. See id. at 16-17.
204. 478 U.S. 186, 190-96 (1986).
205. Id. at 191.
206. ESKRIDGE & SPEDALE, supra note 184, at 18.
207. See EVAN WOLFSON, WHY MARRIAGE MATTERS: AMERICA, EQUALITY, AND GAY PEOPLE'S RIGHT TO MARRY 13-15 (2004). Evan Wolfson is the founder and executive director of Freedom to Marry, a "gay and non-gay partnership working to win marriage equality nationwide." See Freedom to Marry, About Us, http://freedomtomarry.org/about.asp (last visited June 21, 2007).
208. Frank Rich, The Joy of Gay Marriage, N.Y. TIMES, Feb. 29, 2004, § 2, at 1.
209. Baehr v. Lewin, 852 P.2d 44 (Haw. 1993), declared moot sub nom. Baehr v. Miike, No. 20371, 1999 Haw. LEXIS 391 (Dec. 9, 1999).
210. Id. at 63 (citations omitted). Interestingly, gay rights organizations did not take a leading role in the Hawaii litigation because of internal divisions about the wisdom of pursuing the right to same-sex marriage. WOLFSON, supra note 190, at 30. The case was therefore filed by a local civil rights attorney in Honolulu. See id. at 30-32. It appears that the Loving analogy was introduced in an amicus brief submitted to the Hawaii Supreme Court by Lambda Legal Defense and Education Fund. See Brief of Lambda Legal Defense & Education Fund, Inc. as Amicus Curiae Supporting Plaintiff-Appellant at 1-3, Baehr v. Lewin, 852 P.2d 44 (Haw. 1993) (No. 15689).
211. See ESKRIDGE & SPEDALE, supra note 184, at 20.
212. See id.
213. 478 U.S. 186 (1986).
214. Lawrence v. Texas, 539 U.S. 558, 578 (2003).
215. See ESKRIDGE & SPEDALE, supra note 184, at 229-30, 235; Edward Stein, Introducing Lawrence v. Texas: Some Background and a Glimpse of the Future, 10 CARDOZO WOMEN'S L.J. 263, 275-80 (2004);
216. see also Ariela R. Dubler, Immoral Purposes: Marriage and the Genus of Illicit Sex, 115 YALE L.J. 756, 760-61 (2006).
217. For instance, after 2003, the question of same-sex marriage continued to be litigated vigorously in New Jersey and Massachusetts. See Lewis v. Harris, 908 A.2d 196 (N.J. 2006); Cote-Whitacre v. Dep't of Pub. Health, 844 N.E.2d 623 (Mass. 2006); Goodridge v. Dep't of Pub. Health, 798 N.E.2d 941 (Mass. 2003).
218. Robert A. Destro, Introduction to Symposium, Law and the Politics of Marriage: Loving v. Virginia After 30 Years, 47 CATH. U. L. REV. 1207, 1208 (1998).
219. See id. at 1222-26.
220. See id. at 1219-21; David Orgon Coolidge, Playing the Loving Card: Same-Sex Marriage and the Politics of Analogy, 12 BYU J. PUB. L. 201 (1998);
221. Richard F. Duncan, From Loving to Romer: Homosexual Marriage and Moral Discernment, 12 BYU J. PUB. L. 239 (1998).
222. WILLIAM N. ESKRIDGE, JR., THE CASE FOR SAME-SEX MARRIAGE: FROM SEXUAL LIBERTY TO CIVILIZED COMMITMENT 162-72 (1996);
223. Justin Reinheimer, Recent Development, Same-Sex Marriage Through the Equal Protection Clause: A Gender-Conscious Analysis, 21 BERKELEY J. GENDER L. & JUST. 213, 233-34 (2006);
224. Mark Strasser, Loving in the New Millenium: On Equal Protection and the Right to Marry, 7 U. CHI. L. SCH. ROUNDTABLE 61 (2000);
225. Andrew Koppelman, Why Discrimination Against Lesbians and Gay Men Is Sex Discrimination, 69 N.Y.U. L. REV. 197, 208-19 (1994).
226. WALLENSTEIN, supra note 73, at 199-200.
227. See Duncan, supra note 202, at 250-51; Lynn D. Wardle, A Critical Analysis of Constitutional Claims for Same-Sex Marriage, 1996 BYU L. REV. 1, 82.
228. See Monte Neil Stewart & William C. Duncan, Marriage and the Betrayal of Perez and Loving, 2005 BYU L. REV. 555, 556;
229. Douglas W. Kmiec, The Procreative Argument for Proscribing Same-Sex Marriage, 32 HASTINGS CONST. L.Q. 653, 653 (2005).
230. See Stewart & Duncan, supra note 206, at 575-81; Coolidge, supra note 202, at 228 & n.106; Wardle, supra note 205, at 76.
231. See Loving v. Virginia, 388 U.S. 1, 12 (1967).
232. See supra notes 18-20 and accompanying text.
233. See, e.g., Adam Liptak, Gay Marriage Through a Black-White Prism, N.Y. TIMES, Oct. 29, 2006, § 4, at 3 ("Advocates for gay marriage say there is much to be learned from Perez.").
234. The Court's unwillingness to confront the issue became clear in Naim v. Naim, 350 U.S. 891 (1955), appeal reconsidered, 350 U.S. 985 (1956); see supra notes 110-19 and accompanying text.
235. See Perez v. Sharp, 198 P.2d 17, 20-21 (1948).
236. Id. at 21.
237. See id. at 25.
238. Id. at 18.
239. See id.; Orenstein, supra note 76, at 389-90.
240. See Perez, 198 P.2d at 19-23.
241. See Barbara A. Mitchell, Changing Courses: The Pendulum of Family Transitions in Comparative Perspective, 37 J. COMP. FAM. STUD. 325 (2006) (noting the intensely traditional nature of post-World War II family life);
242. Frank F. Furstenberg, Jr., The Future of Marriage, AM. DEMOGRAPHICS, June 1996, at 34 (describing the decline in marriage since the 1940s, in part due to increasing secularization).
243. Interestingly, both critics and supporters of same-sex marriage agree on this point. Compare ESKRIDGE & SPEDALE, supra note 184, at 210-11, with Katherine Shaw Spaht, Beyond Baehr: Strengthening the Definition of Marriage, 12 BYU J. PUB. L. 277, 281-82 (1998).
244. See ESKRIDGE & SPEDALE, supra note 184, at 211.
245. See id. at 210.
246. BUREAU OF THE CENSUS, HOW WE'RE CHANGING - DEMOGRAPHIC STATE OF THE NATION: 1997 (1997), available at http://www.census.gov/prod/2/pop/p23/p23-193. pdf (describing the increasing rates of divorce since 1970 and linking this change to the growing numbers of single-parent families).
247. See Debra Rosenberg & Pat Wingert, First Comes Junior in a Baby Carriage, NEWSWEEK, Dec. 4, 2006, at 56 (reporting that four in ten children are born to unmarried mothers). Efforts to counter this trend through initiatives like covenant marriages have not met with great success.
248. See Don Monkerud, Covenant Marriage on the Rocks, HUMANIST, May-June 2006, at 39, 39-40.
249. See Loving v. Virginia, 388 U.S. 1, 2-3 (1967); Orenstein, supra note 76, at 386.
250. See Andrew Koppelman, Same-Sex Marriage and Public Policy: The Miscegenation Precedents, 16 QUINNIPIAC L. REV. 105 app. at 134-50 (1996) (collecting state laws denying recognition to same-sex marriages performed in another jurisdiction).
251. For an analysis of choice-of-law and federalism concerns posed by the laws, see Barbara J. Cox, Same-Sex Marriage and Choice of Law: If We Marry in Hawaii, Are We Still Married When We Return Home?, 1994 WIS. L. REV. 1033, 1062-99;
252. Linda J. Silberman, Can the Island of Hawaii Bind the World?: A Comment on Same-Sex Marriage and Federalism Values, 16 QUINNIPIAC L. REV. 191, 192-203 (1996).
253. See ESKRIDGE & SPEDALE, supra note 184, at 3-5 (describing how the first gay couple to petition for a marriage license in the United States made a "romantic gesture [that] had a fairy-tale quality for the two men who wanted to live 'happily ever after'").
254. See id. at 18.
255. See DAVID MOATS, CIVIL WARS: A BATTLE FOR GAY MARRIAGE 22 (2004).
256. See ESKRIDGE & SPEDALE, supra note 184, at 18.
257. WOLFSON, supra note 190, app. B, at 194-97.
258. Steven K. Homer, Note, Against Marriage, 29 HARV. C.R.-C.L. L. REV. 505, 515-16 (1994) (giving one definition of traditional marriages as "a bundle of benefits and entitlements").
259. See, e.g., Kerrigan v. State, 909 A.2d 89 (Conn. Super. Ct. 2006); Lewis v. Harris, 908 A.2d 196 (N.J. 2006); Baker v. State, 744 A.2d 864 (Vt. 1999). But cf. Opinions of the Justices to the Senate, 802 N.E.2d 565 (Mass. 2004) (suggesting strongly in an advisory opinion to the state senate that civil unions violated equal protection under the Massachusetts constitution).
260. See William N. Eskridge, Jr., Equality Practice: Liberal Reflections on the Jurisprudence of Civil Unions, The 2000 Edward C. Sobota Memorial Lecture at the Albany Law School (Oct. 12, 2000), in 64 ALB. L. REV. 853, 865-67 (2001).
261. See id. at 867-70; Tonja Jacobi, Sharing the Love: The Political Power of Remedial Delay in Same-Sex Marriage Cases, 15 LAW & SEXUALITY 11, 55-56 (2006);
262. Nancy K. Kubasek et al., Civil Union Statutes: A Shortcut to Legal Equality for Same-Sex Partners in a Landscape Littered with Defense of Marriage Acts, 15 J.L. & PUB. POL'Y 229, 238-39, 257-58 (2004).
263. See, e.g., MICHAEL MELLO, LEGALIZING GAY MARRIAGE 172-73 (2004); MOATS, supra note 228, at 16-18.
264. See, e.g., Eskridge, supra note 233, at 864-65; Greg Johnson, In Praise of Civil Unions, 30 CAP. U.L. REV. 315, 332-34 (2002).
265. See Dubler, supra note 198, at 808 ("[By 2003,] the links between marriage and licit sex, and nonmarriage and illicit sex, had already substantially frayed in multiple legal contexts."); see also JUDITH STACEY, BRAVE NEW FAMILIES: STORIES OF DOMESTIC UPHEAVAL IN LATE- TWENTIETH-CENTURY AMERICA 16-17, 252-53 (2d ed. 1998).
266. By contrast, until the mid-1800s, heterosexual couples who lived together for a substantial period without taking wedding vows were nonetheless deemed to be in a common law marriage. See RICHARD D. MOHR, THE LONG ARC OF JUSTICE: LESBIAN AND GAY MARRIAGE, EQUALITY, AND RIGHTS 62-63 (2005). This approach preserved the hegemony of marriage by assimilating alternatives like cohabitation, regardless of the individuals' choices about formalizing the relationship. See id. Interestingly, a ballot measure recently proposed in Washington state would have the opposite effect as common law marriage: it would annul marriages if couples failed to have children in three years.
267. Rachel La Corte, Ballot Proposal Lists Kids as Marriage Must, FLA. TIMES-UNION (Jacksonville), Feb. 6, 2007, at A4.
268. See Sam Roberts, It's Official: To Be Married Means to Be Outnumbered, N.Y. TIMES, Oct. 15, 2006, § 1, at 22 (noting that married couples are now a minority, despite the overall popularity of the institution).
269. See, e.g., Defense of Marriage Act, Pub. L. 104-199, § 3(a), 110 Stat. 2419 (1996) (codified at 1 U.S.C. § 7 (2000)) (defining "marriage" and "spouse"). All but five states have a statute or constitutional amendment prohibiting same-sex marriage. DOMA Watch, http://www.domawatch.org/stateissues/index.html (last visited July 24, 2007). In adopting what have been termed mini-Defense of Marriage Acts, some states have relied on only a constitutional amendment, see, e.g., NEV. CONST. art. I, § 21; others have used only a statute, see, e.g., FLA. STAT. § 741.212 (2007); and still others have both constitutional and statutory provisions, see, e.g., IDAHO CONST. art. III, § 28; IDAHO CODE ANN. § 32-201 (2007).
270. See 28 U.S.C. § 1738C (2000) (stating that a same-sex marriage from one state need not be recognized in other jurisdictions); see also IDAHO CODE § 32-209; IND. CODE § 31-11-1-1(b) (2007); OHIO CONST. art. XV, § 11; OHIO REV. CODE ANN. § 3101.01 (LexisNexis 2007).
271. In 2003, Congress proposed a constitutional amendment on the issue. Federal Marriage Amendment, H.R.J. Res. 56, 108th Cong. (2003); S.J. Res. 30, 108th Cong. § 2 (2004) ("Marriage in the United States shall consist only of the union of a man and a woman. [No state or federal constitution] shall be construed to require that marriage or the legal incidents thereof be conferred upon any union other than the union of a man and a woman."); see also Mike Allen, Gay Marriage Looms as Issue, WASH. POST, Oct. 25, 2003, at A1. A Michigan court recently held that the state's marriage amendment precluded employers from conferring spousal benefits to registered domestic partners. See Nat'l Pride at Work, Inc. v. Governor of Mich., No. 265870, 2007 Mich. App. LEXIS 240 (Mich. Ct. App. Feb. 1, 2007);
272. Susan Saulny, Michigan Court Bars a Benefit for Same-Sex Domestic Partners, N.Y. TIMES, Feb. 3, 2007, at A10.
273. R. Richard Banks & Su Jin Gatlin, African American Intimacy: The Racial Gap in Marriage, 11 MICH. J. RACE & L. 115, 118-23 (2005).
274. See Roberts, supra note 239.
275. Id.
276. Id.
277. Peter J. Stein, Singlehood: An Alternative to Marriage, 24 FAM. COORDINATOR 489, 501 (1975).
278. See Rachel F. Moran, How Second-Wave Feminism Forgot the Single Woman, 33 HOFSTRA L. REV. 223, 224-25, 274-78 (2004).
279. See id. at 289-90, 292; Rosanna Hertz & Faith I.T. Ferguson, Kinship Strategies and Self-Sufficiency Among Single Mothers by Choice: Post Modern Family Ties, 20 QUALITATIVE SOC. 187, 204 (1997) (describing how single mothers build a "repertory family," defined as an "ensemble" comprised of friends and neighbors as well as relatives).
280. Pub. L. No. 103-3, tit. I, § 2, 107 Stat. 6 (codified at 29 U.S.C. §§ 2601-54 (2000) and 5 U.S.C. §§ 6381-6387 (2000)).
281. See Jane Gross, Older Women Team Up to Face Future Together, N.Y. TIMES, Feb. 27, 2004, at A1.
282. LAW COMM'N OF CAN., BEYOND CONJUGALITY: RECOGNIZING AND SUPPORTING CLOSE PERSONAL ADULT RELATIONSHIPS (2001), http://epe.lacbac.gc.ca/100/200/301/lcc-cdc/beyond_conjugality-e/pdf/37152-e. pdf.
283. Id. at x.
284. See id.
285. Id. at xviii.
286. See id.
287. Moran, supra note 248, at 293-94.
288. See Admin. for Children & Families, U.S. Dep't of Health and Human Servs., The Healthy Marriage Initiative (HMI), http://www.acf.hhs.gov/ healthymarriage/about/mission.html (last visited June 21, 2007).
289. See ARIZ. REV. STAT. ANN. §§ 25-901 to -906 (West 2006); ARK. CODE ANN. §§ 9-11-801 to -811 (1987 & Supp. 2002); LA. REV. STAT. ANN. §§ 9:272 to :275.1 (2000 & Supp. 2007).
290. Defense of Marriage Act, Pub. L. No. 104-199, § 3(a), 110 Stat. 2419 (1996) (codified at 1 U.S.C. § 7 (2000) and 28 U.S.C. § 1738C (2000)). For an inventory of states that restrict marriage to unions between a man and a woman, see HUMAN RIGHTS CAMPAIGN, STATE PROHIBITIONS ON MARRIAGE FOR SAME-SEX COUPLE (2006), http://www.hrc.org/Template. cfm?Section=Your_Community&Template=/ContentManagement/ContentDisplay. cfm&ContentID=19449.
291. A notable exception is Jennifer Chacón's contribution to this symposium issue. Jennifer Marie Chacón, Loving Across Borders: Immigration Law and the Limits of Loving, 2007 WIS. L. REV. 345.
292. Hung Cam Thai, Clashing Dreams: Highly Educated Overseas Brides and Low-Wage U.S. Husbands, in GLOBAL WOMAN, supra note 126, at 230, 231.
293. MORAN, supra note 42, at 106-09.
294. See id.
295. Id. at 175.
296. See id. See generally GEORGE YANCEY, WHO IS WHITE?: LATINOS, ASIANS, AND THE NEW BLACK/NONBLACK DIVIDE 19-21 (2003) (arguing that Latinos and Asians will be assimilated into a white identity in ways that blacks will not).
297. See Elizabeth Iglesias, Out of the Shadow: Marking Intersections in and Between Asian Pacific American Critical Legal Scholarship and Latina/o Critical Legal Theory, 40 B.C. L. REV. 349, 358-63 (1998);
298. Stephanie L. Phillips, The Convergence of the Critical Race Theory Workshop with LatCrit Theory: A History, 53 U. MIAMI L. REV. 1247, 1253-54 (1999).
299. See supra notes 219-23.
300. See, e.g., U.S. GOV'T ACCOUNTABILITY OFFICE, GAO-06-825, HUMAN TRAFFICKING: BETTER DATA, STRATEGY AND REPORTING NEEDED TO ENHANCE U.S. ANTITRAFFICKING EFFORTS ABROAD 4-10 (2006) (describing federal efforts to combat the problem, and relating President George W. Bush's declaration that
301. See Susan Tiefenbrun, The Saga of Susannah: A U.S. Remedy for Sex Trafficking in Women: The Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act of 2000, 2002 UTAH L. REV. 107, 116-26;
302. Meredith May, Sex Trafficking, S.F. CHRON., Oct. 6, 2006, at A1.
303. Denise Brennan, Selling Sex for Visas: Sex Tourism as a Stepping-Stone to International Migration, in GLOBAL WOMAN, supra note 126, at 154, 154.
304. Id.
305. Linda Kelly, Marriage for Sale: The Mail-Order Bride Industry and the Changing Value of Marriage, 5 J. GENDER RACE & JUST. 175, 187-88 (2002).
306. Kumiko Nemoto, Intimacy, Desire, and the Construction of Self in Relationships Between Asian American Women and White American Men, 9 J. ASIAN-AM. STUD. 27, 40-41 (2006).
307. Id. at 41.
308. Id. at 42.
309. See id. at 40-41.
310. Kumiko Nemoto, Race, Romance and Desire in Interracial Relationships: Asian/Asian Americans and White Americans 69 (2004) (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Texas).
311. Mary Romero, Nanny Diaries and Other Stories: Imagining Immigrant Women's Labor in the Social Reproduction of American Families, 52 DEPAUL L. REV. 809, 840-45 (2003).
312. GRACE CHANG, DISPOSABLE DOMESTICS: IMMIGRANT WOMEN WORKERS IN THE GLOBAL ECONOMY 55-58 (2000); MAID IN AMERICA (Independent 2005). For more information on the film, see PBS, Maid in America, http://www.pbs.org/independentlens/maidinamerica/index.html (last visited June 21, 2007).
313. Barbara Stark, When Globalization Hits Home: International Family Law Comes of Age, 39 VAND. J. TRANSNAT'L L. 1551, 1559-61 (2006);
314. Barrie Thorne et al., Raising Children and Growing Up, Across National Borders: Comparative Perspectives on Age, Gender, and Migration, in GENDER AND U.S. MIGRATION: CONTEMPORARY TRENDS 241, 248-50 (Pierrette Hondagneu-Sotelo ed., 2003).
315. For some instances in which cases establishing the fundamental right to marry have been cited in the context of immigration and the plenary power doctrine, see Kelly, supra note 273, at 190-91; Gregory R. Hawran, Taking Fairness and Retroactivity from Immigration Law: Casenote on Fernandez-Vargas v. Gonzales, 38 U. MIAMI INTER-AM. L. REV. 431, 450-52 (2007).
316. Buck v. Stankovic, 485 F. Supp. 2d 576 (M.D. Pa. 2007); Julia Preston, Illegal Immigrant and the Right to Wed, N.Y. TIMES, May 2, 2007, at A18 ("[T]his ruling was the first by a federal judge in a case testing whether immigrants can obtain marriage licenses without current visas." (quoting Mary Catherine Roper, an ACLU attorney working on the case)).
317. Buck, 485 F. Supp. 2d at 579.
318. 434 U.S. 374 (1978).
319. Id. at 375.
320. See id. at 384-87.
321. Id. at 388-90.
322. See id.
323. Buck v. Stankovic, 485 F. Supp. 2d 576, 582-83 (M.D. Pa. 2007).
324. Id. at 583-85.