The consumption of khat and other drugs in Somali combatants: A cross-sectional study

PLoS Medicine

Volumn 4, Issue 12, 2007, Pages 1959-1972

  Odenwald, Michael ^a   Hinkel, Harald ^b,c   Schauer, Elisabeth ^d   Neuner, Frank ^a   Schauer, Maggie ^a,d   Elbert, Thomas R ^a,d   Rockstroh, Brigitte ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF KONSTANZ   (Germany)

^b International Services   (Ethiopia)

^c World Bank Multi Country Demobilization and Reintegration Program of the Greater Great Lakes Region   (Congo)

^d Universität Konstanz und Vivo International EV   (Italy)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ALCOHOL; BENZODIAZEPINE; CANNABIS; CATHA EDULIS EXTRACT; PSYCHOTROPIC AGENT; SOLVENT; PLANT EXTRACT;

ADULT; ALCOHOL CONSUMPTION; ARMY; ARTICLE; CANNABIS ADDICTION; DRUG ABUSE; FEMALE; GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION; HUMAN; INGESTION; INTERVIEW; MAJOR CLINICAL STUDY; MALE; PLANT SEED; QUESTIONNAIRE; SELF REPORT; SMOKING; SOLDIER; SOMALIA; TABLET; WAR; ADDICTION; CANNABIS SMOKING; CATHA; CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDY; DRINKING BEHAVIOR; MIDDLE AGED; PREVALENCE; STATISTICS;

ADULT; ALCOHOL DRINKING; CATHA; CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDIES; FEMALE; HUMANS; MALE; MARIJUANA ABUSE; MARIJUANA SMOKING; MIDDLE AGED; MILITARY PERSONNEL; PLANT EXTRACTS; PREVALENCE; PSYCHOTROPIC DRUGS; QUESTIONNAIRES; SOLVENTS; SOMALIA; SUBSTANCE-RELATED DISORDERS; WAR;

EID: 38049032917     PISSN: 15491277     EISSN: 15491676     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1371/journal.pmed.0040341     Document Type: Article

References (75)

1. Gros J (1996) Towards a taxonomy of failed states in the New World Order: decaying Somalia, Liberia, Rwanda and Haiti. Third World Q 17: 455-472.
2. Fund for Peace and Foreign Policy Magazine (2007) The Failed State Index 2007. Foreign Policy 162 July/August 2007. Available: http://www.foreignpolicy. com/story/cms.php?story_id=3865. Accessed 14 August 2007.
3. Menkhaus K (2003) Somalia: A Situation Analysis and Trend Assessment. Geneva: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. Available: http://www.unhcr.org/publ/RSDCOI/3f7c235f4.pdf. Accessed 20 November 2005.
4. Terlinden U (2006) FAST Update Somalia: Semi-annual Risk Assessment, July 2005 to January 2006. Berne (Switzerland): Swisspeace. Available: http://www.swisspeace.ch/typo3/fileadmin/user_upload/pdf/FAST/archive/somalia/ Somalia_FAST_Update_2_2005.pdf. Accessed 20 November 2005.
5. Terlinden U (2007) Fast Update Somalia January to March 2007. Berne (Switzerland): Swiss Peace. Available: http://www.swisspeace.ch/typo3/fileadmin/ user_upload/pdf/FAST/Updates/2007/FAST_Somalia_Update_1_2007_final.pdf. 2 March 2007.
6. Kigma K (2000) Introduction. In: Kigma K, editor. Demobilization in Sub-Saharan Africa: The Development and Security Impacts. New York: St. Martin's Press.
7. Prigerson HG, Maciejewski PK, Rosenheck RA (2001) Combat trauma: trauma with highest risk of delayed onset and unresolved posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms, unemployment, and abuse among men. J Nerv Ment Dis 189: 99-108.
8. Mogapi N (2004) Reintegration of soldiers: The missing piece. Intervention 2: 221-225.
9. Fontana A, Rosenheck R (2005) The role of war-zone trauma and PTSD in the etiology of antisocial behavior. J Nerv Ment Dis 193: 203-209.
10. Rosenheck R, Fontana A (1994) A model of homelessness among male veterans of the Vietnam War generation. Am J Psychiatry 151: 421-427.
11. Savarese VW, Suvak MK, King LA, King DW (2001) Relationships among alcohol use, hyperarousal, and marital abuse and violence in Vietnam veterans. J Trauma Stress 14: 717-732.
12. Savoca E, Rosenheck R (2000) The civilian labor market experiences of Vietnam-era veterans: the influence of psychiatric disorders. J Ment Health Policy Econ 3: 199-207.
13. Kulka RA, Schlenger WE, Fairbank JA, Hough Jordan, et al. (1990) Trauma and the Vietnam War Generation: Report of Findings from the National Vietnam Veterans Readjustment Study. New York: Brunner/Mazel.
14. Shipherd JC, Stafford J, Tanner LR (2005) Predicting alcohol and drug abuse in Persian Gulf War veterans: what role do PTSD symptoms play? Addict Behav 30: 595-599.
15. Okulate GT, Jones OB (2006) Post-traumatic stress disorder, survivor guilt and substance use: a study of hospitalised Nigerian army veterans. S Afr Med J 96: 144-146.
16. McFall ME, Mackay PW, Donovan DM (1992) Combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder and severity of substance abuse in Vietnam veterans. J Stud Alcohol 53: 357-363.
17. Brady KT, Back SE, Coffey SF (2004) Substance Abuse and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. Curr Dir Psych Sci 13: 206-209.
18. Chilcoat HD, Breslau N (1998) Investigations of causal pathways between PTSD and drug use disorders. Addict Behav 23: 827-840.
19. Jacobsen LK, Southwick SM, Kosten TR (2001) Substance use disorders in patients with posttraumatic stress disorder: a review of the literature. Am J Psychiatry 158: 1184-1190.
20. Calhoun PS, Sampson WS, Bosworth HB, Feldman ME, Kirby AC, et al. (2000) Drug use and validity of substance use self-reports in veterans seeking help for posttraumatic stress disorder. J Consult Clin Psychol 68: 923-927.
21. Ouimette P, Moos RH, Finney JW (2003) PTSD treatment and 5-year remission among patients with substance use and posttraumatic stress disorders. J Consult Clin Psychol 71: 410-414.
22. Sloan KL, Rowe G (1998) Substance abuse and psychiatric illness: treatment experience. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse 24: 589-601.
23. Collier P (1994) Demobilization and Insecurity: A Study in the Economics of the Transition From War to Peace. J Int Dev 6: 343-351.
24. Kingma K (2000) Post-war societies. In: Pauwels N, editor. War Force to Work Force: Global Perspectives on Demobilization and Reintegration. Baden-Baden (Germany): Nomos.
25. UNODC (1999) The Drug Nexus in Africa. Vienna: United Nations Office for Drug Control and Crime Prevention. Available: http://www.unodc.org/pdf/ report_1999-03-01_1.pdf. Accessed 10 September 2007.
26. UNODC (2007) World Drug Report 2007. New York: United Nations. Available: http://www.unodc.org/pdf/research/wdr07/WDR_2007.pdf. Accessed 15 October 2007.
27. Halbach H (1972) Medical aspects of the chewing of khat leaves. Bull World Health Organ 47: 21-29.
28. Numan N (2004) Exploration of adverse psychological symptoms in Yemeni khat users by the Symptoms Checklist-90 (SCL-90). Addiction 99: 61-65.
29. Toennes SW, Kauert GF (2004) Driving under the influence of khatalkaloid concentrations and observations in forensic cases. Forensic Sci Int 140: 85-90.
30. Gegax TT (2002 September 30) Meet the khat-heads. Newsweek 140: 35.
31. Szendrei K (1980) The chemistry of khat. Bull Narc 32: 5-35.
32. Kalix P (1990) Pharmacological properties of the stimulant khat. Pharmacol Ther 48: 397-416.
33. Zelger JL, Schorno HX, Carlini EA (1980) Behavioural effects of cathinone, an amine obtained from Catha edulis Forsk.: comparisons with amphetamine, norpseudoephedrine, apomorphine and nomifensine. Bull Narc 32: 67-81.
34. Woolverton WL, Johanson CE (1984) Preference in rhesus monkeys given a choice between cocaine and d,l-cathinone. J Exp Anal Behav 41: 35-43.
35. Kalix P (1991) The pharmacology of psychoactive alkaloids from ephedra and catha. J Ethnopharmacol 32: 201-208.
36. Nencini P, Ahmed AM (1989) Khat consumption: a pharmacological review. Drug Alcohol Depend 23: 19-29.
37. Al-Hebshi NN, Skaug N (2005) Khat (Catha edulis) - an updated review. Addict Biol 10: 299-307.
38. Al-Habori M (2005) The potential adverse effects of habitual use of Catha edulis (khat). Expert Opin Drug Saf 4: 1145-1154.
39. Odenwald M (2007) Chronic Khat Use and Psychotic Disorders: A Review of the Literature and Future Prospects. Sucht 53: 9-22.
40. Elmi AS (1983) The chewing of khat in Somalia. J Ethnopharmacol 8: 163-176.
41. Selassie SG, Gebre A (1996) Rapid assessment of drug abuse in Ethiopia. Bull Narc 48: 53-63.
42. Zein ZA (1988) Polydrug abuse among Ethiopian university students with particular reference to khat (Catha edulis). J Trop Med Hyg 91: 71-75.
43. Omolo OE, Dhadphale M (1987) Alcohol use among khat (Catha) chewers in Kenya. Br J Addict 82: 97-99.
44. Odenwald M, Neuner F, Schauer M, Elbert TR, Catani C, et al. (2005) Khat use as risk factor for psychotic disorders: A cross-sectional and case-control study in Somalia. BMC Med 3: 5.
45. Grosse-Kettler S (2004) External Actors in Stateless Somalia. Bonn (Germany): Bonn International Center for Conversion.
46. UNODC (2002) East Africa Drug Information System, EADIS, first annual meeting, November 26-28, 2001. Nairobi, Kenya. In: United Nations International Drug Control ProgrammeGAPoDAG, editor: United Nations Office for Drug Control and Crime Prevention.
47. Anderson D, Beckerleg S, Hailu D, Klein A (2007) The Khat Controversy: Stimulating the Debate on Drugs. Oxford (UK): Berg.
48. Odenwald M, Schauer M, Neuner F, Lingenfelder B, Horn R, et al. (2002) War-trauma, khat abuse and psychosis: Mental health in the demobilization and reintegration program Somaliland [internal document]. Nairobi: Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit. Available: http://www.delken. ec.europa.eu/en/publications/ war%20trauma%20khat%20and%20psychosis%20vivo%20report.pdf. 10 August 2003.
49. Hinkel H (2004) Discussion Paper for Ceasefire, Security Sector Rebuilding, Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration Planning for Somalia. Nairobi: Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit.
50. Smith C (2002) Evaluation of the Somalia North West Demobiolization and Reintegration Programme. Aylesbury (UK): Agrisystems Limited.
51. Dunn J, Ferri CP (1999) Epidemiological methods for research with drug misusers: review of methods for studying prevalence and morbidity. Rev Saude Publica 33: 206-215.
52. Kelly H, Riddell MA, Gidding HF, Nolan T, Gilbert GL (2002) A random cluster survey and a convenience sample give comparable estimates of immunity to vaccine preventable diseases in children of school age in Victoria, Australia. Vaccine 20: 3130-3136.
53. Schwarcz S, Spindler H, Scheer S, Valleroy L, Lansky A (2007) Assessing representativeness of sampling methods for reaching men who have sex with men: a direct comparison of results obtained from convenience and probability samples. AIDS Behav 11: 596-602.
54. Smith BH, Hannaford PC, Elliott AM, Smith WC, Chambers WA (2005) The 'number needed to sample' in primary care research. Comparison of two primary care sampling frames for chronic back pain. Fam Pract 22: 205-214.
55. Brener ND, Billy JO, Grady WR (2003) Assessment of factors affecting the validity of self-reported health-risk behavior among adolescents: evidence from the scientific literature. J Adolesc Health 33: 436-457.
56. Dunn MS, Bartee RT, Perko MA (2003) Self-reported alcohol use and sexual behaviors of adolescents. Psychol Rep 92: 339-348.
57. Dhaifalah I, Santavý J (2004) Khat habit and health effect. Anatural amphetamine. Biomed Pap Med Fac Univ Palacky Olomouc Czech Repub 148: 11-15.
58. Al-Habori M (2005) The potential adverse effects of habitual use of Catha edulis (khat). Expert Opin Drug Saf 4: 1145-1154.
59. Toennes SW, Harder S, Schramm M, Niess C, Kauert GF (2003) Pharmacokinetics of cathinone, cathine and norephedrine after the chewing of khat leaves. Br J Clin Pharmacol 56: 125-130.
60. Dhadphale M, Omolo OE (1988) Psychiatric morbidity among khat chewers. East Afr Med J 65: 355-359.
61. Pantelis C, Hindler CG, Taylor JC (1989) Use and abuse of khat (Catha edulis): a review of the distribution, pharmacology, side effects and a description of psychosis attributed to khat chewing. Psychol Med 19: 657-668.
62. Perkins HW, Haines MP, Rice R (2005) Misperceiving the college drinking norm and related problems: a nationwide study of exposure to prevention information, perceived norms and student alcohol misuse. J Stud Alcohol 66: 470-478.
63. Odenwald M, Lingenfelder B, Schauer M, Neuner F, Rockstroh B, et al. (2007) Screening for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder among Somali excombatants: A validation study. Confl Health 1: 10.
64. Kypri K, Langley JD (2003) Perceived social norms and their relation to university student drinking. J Stud Alcohol 64: 829-834.
65. Lewis MA, Neighbors C (2004) Gender-specific misperceptions of college student drinking norms. Psychol Addict Behav 18: 334-339.
66. Bersani G, Orlandi V, Kotzalidis GD, Pancheri P (2002) Cannabis and schizophrenia: impact on onset, course, psychopathology and outcomes. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 252: 86-92.
67. Blows S, Ivers RQ, Connor J, Ameratunga S, Woodward M, et al. (2005) Marijuana use and car crash injury. Addiction 100: 605-611.
68. Patel SL, Wright S, Gammampila A (2005) Khat use among Somalis in four English cities. London: Home Office. Available: http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/ rds/pdfs05/rdsolr4705.pdf. Accessed 8 February 2006
69. Griffiths P (1998) Qat use in London: a study of qat use among a sample of Somalis living in London. Drugs Prevention Initiative Paper No. 26. Home Office, Central Drugs Prevention Unit. London, 101 p.
70. [No author listed] (2006 November 16) Somali khat protester shot dead. One-minute-world news. London: BBC. Available: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/ africa/6155796.stm. Accessed 14 August 2007.
71. Al-Motarreb A, Baker K, Broadley KJ (2002) Khat: pharmacological and medical aspects and its social use in Yemen. Phytother Res 16: 403-413.
72. Geisshusler S, Brenneisen R (1987) The content of psychoactive phenylpropyl and phenylpentenyl khatamines in Catha edulis Forsk. of different origin. J Ethnopharmacol 19: 269-277.
73. Mion G, Oberti M (1998) [Epidemiologic study of qat use in the National Army of Djibouti]. Med Trop (Mars) 58: 161-164.
74. Saraceno B, Barbui C (1997) Poverty and mental illness. Can J Psychiatry 42: 285-290.
75. Elmi AS, Ahmed YH, Samatar MS (1987) Experience in the control of khatchewing in Somalia. Bull Narc 39: 51-57.