Recreation and race in the postwar city: Buffalo's 1956 Crystal Beach riot

Journal of American History

Volumn 93, Issue 1, 2006, Pages 63-90

  Wolcott, Victoria W ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ROCHESTER   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 37849187298     PISSN: 00218723     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/4486060     Document Type: Review

References (203)

1. Martin Luther King Jr., I Have a Dream: Writings and Speeches That Changed the World, ed. James Melvin Washington (San Francisco, 1992), 88.
2. Buffalonians made up 80% of the park's visitors, with the rest coming from Toronto and southern Ontario. Toronto Telegram, Nov. 1, 1955,
3. Crystal Beach Binder (Fort Erie Public Library, Fort Erie, Ontario). For descriptions of the riot, see Mark Goldman, City on the Lake: The Challenge of Change in Buffalo, New York (Buffalo, 1990), 9-12;
4. William Graebner, Coming of Age in Buffalo: Youth and Authority in the Postwar Era (Philadelphia, 1990), 120-29;
5. and Michael Vogel, Maritime Buffalo (Buffalo, 1990), 53-56.
6. L. H. Weir, Recreation Survey of Buffalo (Buffalo, 1925), 88.
7. Alison Isenberg, Downtown America: A History of the Place and the People Who Made It (Chicago, 2004), 5.
8. Alison Isenberg used the phrase "idealized public space" to discuss the symbolic significance of America's downtowns, but the phrase applies equally to amusement parks. For the argument that "the public in America has always been segregated and walled off," see Bryant Simon, Boardwalk of Dreams: Atlantic City and the Fate of Urban America (New York, 2004), 17.
9. On the regulation of parks, see Judith A. Adams, The American Amusement Park Industry: A History of Technology and Thrills (Boston, 1991), 59;
10. and John Hannigan, Fantasy City: Pleasure and Profit in the Postmodern Metropolis (New York, 1998), 22-23.
11. Sharon Zukin, Landscapes of Power: From Detroit to Disneyworld (Los Angeles, 1991), 259.
12. Andrew J. Diamond, "Hoodlums, Rebels, and Vice Lords: Street Gangs, Youth Subcultures, and Race in Chicago, 1919-1968" (Ph.D. diss., University of Michigan, 2004), 5.
13. Donald Golba, "After the Memorial Day 'Riots' of 1956 . . . ," in Crystal Beach: The Good Old Days, ed. Erno Rossi (Port Colborne, Ontario, 2005), 85.
14. Dudley Cooper interview by Peter M. Kusiak, Nov. 30, 1978, transcript, p. 3, Oral Histories in the Perry Library (Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Va.); "Steamboat Vacations," June 20, 2002, Maryland Historical Society 〈http://www.mdhs.org/radio/md_june20.html〉, para. 3 (Dec. 23, 2004). Other African American amusement parks included Lyons Park near Oklahoma City, Oklahoma; Suburban Gardens in Maryland, near Washington, D.C.; and Lincoln Beach in New Orleans, Louisiana.
15. For a critique of the "golden age," see Hannigan, Fantasy City, esp. 15-32.
16. For the argument that "white flight" oversimplifies a process that could take decades and have multiple manifestations, see Robert Self, American Baby-lon: Race and the Struggle for Postwar Oakland (Princeton, 2003), 16;
17. Amanda I. Seligman, Block by Block: Neighborhoods and Public Policy on Chicago's West Side (Chicago, 2005), 4;
18. and Kevin M. Kruse, "The Politics of Race and Public Space: Desegregation, Privatization, and the Tax Revolt in Atlanta," Journal of Urban History, 31 (July 2005), 613.
19. Toronto Star, April 11, 1983, p. A11.
20. Thomas M. Rizzo, "Memories of the Crystal Beach Boat and Ballroom," typescript, 1996, p. 1, Clipping File (Buffalo Historical Society, Buffalo, N.Y.);
21. George Kunz, Buffalo Memories: Gone but Not Forgotten (Buffalo, 2002), 271.
22. Patti Meyer Lee and Gary Lee, Don't Bother Knockin. . . This Town's a Rockin: A History of Traditional Rhythm and Blues and Early Rock 'n' Roll in Buffalo, New York (Buffalo, 2001), 7-8;
23. Fort Erie Museum Board, Many Voices: A Collective History of Greater Fort Erie (Fort Erie, Ontario, 1996), 212.
24. New York Times, May 31, 1956, p. 50;
25. Buffalo Evening News, May 31, 1956, p. 1.
26. On the importance of rumor in riot behavior, see Marilynn S. Johnson, "Gender, Race, and Rumours: Re-examining the 1943 Race Riots," Gender and History (Oxford), 10 (Aug. 1998), 252-77. William Robinson and Zaid Islam interview by William Graebner, Nov. 9, 1985, transcript, pp. 9-11 (in Victoria W. Wolcott's possession).
27. Fort Erie Times Review, June 1, 1956, p. 8.
28. Gloster Current to Roy Wilkins, memo, June 1, 1956, folder "Racial Tension, 1956-57," box A265, series 3, National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) Papers (Manuscript Division, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.); "FBI Probes Teen Rock, Riot Cruise," Chicago Defender, June 9, 1956, p. 1;
29. Fort Erie Times Review, June 21, 1956, p. 16.
30. Fort Erie Times Review, June 21, 1956, p. 16;
31. Fort Erie Times Review ibid., June 1, 1956, p. 1.
32. Robinson interview by Graebner, Sept. 1985, transcript, p. 4 (in Wolcott's possession); Fort Erie Times Review, June 14, 1956, p. 17;
33. New York Times, May 31, 1956, p. 50.16
34. "Interviews with Subjects and Associates," Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) File BU 45-82, p. 6.
35. William Graebner obtained the FBI files through the Freedom of Information Act and he generously gave me a copy. Interview, June 1, 1956, Interviews with Subjects and Associates ibid., p. 21;
36. "Gangs Spread Terror," Buffalo Evening News, May 31, 1956, p. 1.
37. "Investigation to Identify Unknown Subjects," FBI File BU 45-82, p. 7;
38. "Victims' Attempts to Identify Unknown Subjects," FBI File BU ibid., p. 13;
39. interview, June 6, 1956, FBI File BU ibid., pp. 7, 13-15;
40. "Potential Witnesses," FBI File BU ibid., p. 3;
41. interview, June 2, 1956, FBI File BU ibid., p. 54;
42. Robinson interview, pp. 5, 8. On Buffalo gangs, see Graebner, Coming of Age in Buffalo, 52-58;
43. and William Graebner, "Outlawing Teenage Populism: The Campaign against Secret Societies in the American High School, 1900-1960," Journal of American History, 74 (Sept. 1987), 411-35.
44. Graebner, Coming of Age in Buffalo, 99-103.
45. One of the El Dorados' members was the daughter of a prominent councilman, King Peterson. Buffalo Urban League Directors' Meeting, June 20, 1956, p. 3,
46. Buffalo Urban League Corporate Minutes, 1927-77 (microfilm: frame 40, reel 1), E. H. Butler Library (Buffalo State College, Buffalo, N.Y.).
47. "Investigation to Identify Unknown Subjects," p. 12.
48. Interview, June 6, 1956, FBI File BU 45-82, p. 6;
49. Washington Daily News, May 31, 1956, p. 3.
50. Interview, June 6, 1956, FBI File BU 45-82, p. 8.
51. William Evans to Charles Abrams, March 25, 1957, folder "Buffalo, 1950-1960," box 39, series 5, Papers of the National Urban League (Manuscript Division, Library of Congress); Margaret Wynn and Dick Hirsch, "Terror Marks Boatride," Buffalo Courier-Express, May 31, 1956, p. 1.
52. For northern white newspapers' coverage of the riot, see New York Times, May 31,1956, p. 50;
53. New York Times ibid., June 15, 1956, p. 27;
54. New York Herald Tribune, June 1, 1956, p. A14;
55. Chicago Daily Tribune, May 31, 1956, p. 7;
56. Los Angeles Times, May 31, 1956, p. 13;
57. San Francisco Chronicle, June 1, 1956, p. 10;
58. and Rochester Democrat and Chronicle, May 31, 1956, p. 11.
59. Buffalo Criterion, June 2, 1956, p. 1.
60. "Teens Rock and Riot on Cruise," Chicago Defender, June 2, 1956, p. 1.
61. Many African American newspapers did not report on the riot. No stories appeared in the Los Angeles Sentinel, Pittsburgh Courier, Amsterdam News, Cleveland Call and Post, or Louisiana Weekly.
62. Buffalo Criterion, June 2, 1956, p. 2.
63. Hannigan, Fantasy City, 46;
64. David Nasaw, Going Out: The Rise and Fall of Public Amusements (New York, 1993), 243-44, 254;
65. Adams, American Amusement Park Industry, 81;
66. L. O. Bush, "Euclid Beach Park," Amusement Park Journal 5 (nos. 2 and 3, 1983), 26-28, 30-33; Arnold Walker to Cincinnati Urban League, Dec. 3, 1952, folder 5, box 36, Cincinnati Urban League Papers (Cincinnati Historical Library, Cincinnati, Ohio).
67. Martha Biondi, To Stand and Fight: The Struggle for Civil Rights in Postwar New York City (Cambridge, Mass., 2003), 82-84;
68. Lizabeth Cohen, A Consumers Republic: The Politics of Mass Consumption in Postwar America (New York, 2003), 184;
69. August Meier and Elliott Rudwick, CORE: A Study in the Civil Rights Movement (Urbana, 1975), 74, 223.
70. Nasaw, Going Out, 253;
71. Adams, American Amusement Park Industry, 71-73;
72. Alan A. Siegel, Smile: A Picture History of Olympic Park, 1887-1965 (Irvington, N.J., 1983);
73. Sharon Zukin, "From Coney Island to Las Vegas in the Urban Imaginary: Discursive Practices of Growth and Decline," Urban Affairs Review, 33 (May 1998), 637;
74. New York Times, April 12, 1966, p. 29.
75. See also Washington Post, April 19, 1966, p. B4;
76. Washington Post ibid., April 14, 1966, p. D1;
77. and Washington Post ibid., April 19, 1966, p. A1 .
78. Between 1950 and 1960 the number of blacks increased by 34,259, or 93.5%. In 1950, blacks constituted 6.3% of the city's population, in 1960 13.3%. There was a similar increase in the 1940s when the black population rose from 3.1% of the total population to 6.3%. See Arthur Butler, Henry Louis Taylor Jr., and Doo-Ha Ryu, "Work and Black Neighborhood Life in Buffalo, 1930-1980," in African Americans and the Rise of Buffalo's Post-Industrial City, 1940 to Present, vol. II, ed. Henry Louis Taylor Jr. (Buffalo, 1990), 118, 130.
79. African Americans and the Rise of Buffalo's Post-Industrial City, 1940 to Present Ibid., 118.
80. Robinson interview, 15.
81. Buffalo Courier-Express, Sept. 10, 1967, p. 17;
82. Fort Erie Museum Board, Many Voices, 206-8.
83. James W. St. G. Walker, Racial Discrimination in Canada: The Black Experience (Ottawa, 1985), 6, 16-17;
84. Leo W. Burtley, Canada and Its People of African Descent (Pierrefonds, QC, 1977), 209;
85. James W. St. G. Walker, A History of Blacks in Canada (Quebec City, 1980), 90.
86. Robinson and Islam interview, 8-9. Both Barbara Seals Nevergold and Sandra Walker, African American residents of Buffalo, remarked that they never swam on the beach or knew other African Americans who did. Barbara Seals Nevergold interview by Victoria W. Wolcott, July 9, 2003, transcript, p. 4 (in Wolcott's possession); Sandra Walker interview by Wolcott, July 17, 2003, transcript, p. 2, A History of Blacks in Canada ibid.
87. See also Cathy Herbert interview by Wolcott, June 30, 2003, p. 1, A History of Blacks in Canada ibid.
88. Letters, 1952, folder 5, box 36, Cincinnati Urban League Papers; Cincinnati Call-Post, May 7, 1955, p. 1;
89. Cincinnati Enquirer, May 30, 1961, p. 1;
90. Vince Guerrieri, "Youngstown's Million Dollar Playground," New Colonist 〈http:www.newcolonist.com/youngstown.html〉, para. 34 (Sept. 10, 2005);
91. Nasaw, Going Out, 244;
92. James Peck, "The Proof of the Pudding," Crisis, 56 (Nov. 1949), 292-355;
93. Biondi, To Stand and Fight, 82-84.
94. Gilbert R. Mason with James Patterson Smith, Beaches, Blood, and Ballots: A Black Doctor's Civil Rights Struggle (Jackson, 2000), 65-87;
95. Roy Wilkins to NAACP Branch and Youth Officers, memo, May 13, 1960, folder "Discrimination: Parks and Playgrounds, 1956-65," box Al 10, series 3, NAACP Papers; New York Times, July 9, 1961, p. 65;
96. Arnold H. Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto: Race and Housing in Chicago, 1940-1960 (Cambridge, Mass., 1983), 65-66;
97. Diamond, "Hoodlums, Rebels, and Vice Lords," 382-85;
98. Seligman, Block by Block, 107;
99. Josh Sides, L.A. City Limits: African American Los Angeles from the Great Depression to the Present (Berkeley, 2003), 21;
100. George Lipsitz, "The Making of Disneyland," in True Stories from the American Past, ed. William Graebner (New York, 1993), 215.
101. Beaches in Atlantic City, New Jersey, were also segregated through much of the twentieth century. See Simon, Boardwalk of Dreams, 39-40.
102. Minutes, National Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) convention, June 19, 1948, p. 1, Congress of Racial Equality Papers, Addendum, 1944-68, ed. Congress of Racial Equality (microfilm, 25 reels, University Publications of America, 1982), reel 9;
103. Louisville Courier Journal, May 5, 1969, p. 1.
104. Most southern cities closed desegregated public swimming pools for a time after the passage of the Civil Rights Act. See "Racial Pressure at Pools," Amusement Business, June 13, 1964, p. 14;
105. "Race Issues at Park Pools; Some Close, Some Integrate," Amusement Business ibid., July 4, 1964, pp. 5-6;
106. "Parks, Pool React to Law: Integrate or Close Doors," Amusement Business ibid., July 25, 1964, pp. 5-6;
107. Kruse, "Politics of Race and Public Space," 622-24;
108. and Timothy B. Tyson, Blood Done Sign My Name: A True Story (New York, 2004), 18-19.
109. "Praise Heard on Every Side for Beach Bathing Safeguards," unidentified newspaper, 1934, clipping file, Crystal Beach Binder.
110. Rizzo, "Memories of Crystal Beach," 2;
111. Hastreiter, "Canadiana, Where Are You?," unidentified newspaper, July 17, 1991, Fort Erie Binder (Fort Erie Public Library).
112. Nasaw, Going Out, 252-55;
113. Adams, American Amusement Park Industry, 66-68, 164-65;
114. Dale Samuelson, The American Amusement Park (St. Paul, 2001), 51, 55;
115. Al Griffin, "Step Right Up, Folks!" (Chicago, 1974), 15-26;
116. Zukin, "From Coney Island to Las Vegas."
117. Norris Willatt, "Amusement Parks," Barron's, May 25, 1959, p. 13.
118. Robinson interview, 12-13; Nevergold interview, p. 5. Buffalo resident Paul Kassay believed that the Crystal Beach riot was the "nail in the coffin" for the Canadiana. Donald Golba remembered that families stopped taking the Canadiana for the remainder of the 1956 season. Kassay and Golba quoted in Rossi, ed., Crystal Beach, 72, 85.
119. Neil Kraus, Race, Neighborhoods, and Community Power: Buffalo Politics, 1934-1997 (Albany, 2000), 71-72;
120. Wall Street Journal, April 7, 1958, p. 1.
121. Kraus, Race, Neighborhoods, and Community Power, 89-90, 95-103, 105-6;
122. Goldman, City on the Lake, 13-25.
123. "The Twenty-Ninth Annual Report of the Buffalo Urban League," 1955, p. 7,
124. folder "Buffalo, 1926-60," box 6, series 13, Papers of the National Urban League; "The Thirty-First Annual Report of the Buffalo Urban League," 1957, pp. 4, 9, ibid.;
125. Wall Street Journal, April 7, 1958, p. 13.
126. Buffalo Evening News, May 31, 1956. p. 1.
127. Robinson interview, 14; Walker interview, 1. For a characterization of the large high schools as "a special kind of social pressure cooker," see Graebner, Coming of Age in Buffalo, 88.
128. Buffalo Evening News, June 26, 1956, p. 1;
129. Buffalo Criterion, June 2, 1956, p. 2.
130. Buffalo Evening News, June 1, 1956, p. 1;
131. New York Times, June 16, 1956, p. 60;
132. Evans to Abrams, March 25, 1957, folder "Buffalo, 1950-1960," box 39, series 5, Papers of the National Urban League. For Victor Einach's statement in the Buffalo Courier-Express, see New York Times ibid.
133. See Richard E. Harris, Delinquency in Our Democracy (Los Angeles, 1954);
134. Harrison E. Salisbury, The Shook-Up Generation (New York, 1958);
135. Sheldon Glueck and Eleanor Glueck, Delinquents in the Making: Paths to Prevention (New York, 1952);
136. and Albert Cohen, Delinquent Boys: The Culture of the Gang (Glencoe, 1955).
137. See James Gilbert, A Cycle of Outrage: America's Reaction to the Juvenile Delinquent in the 1950s (New York, 1986).
138. There were "approximately 20 percent fewer arrests, annually, from 1950 thru 1957 than during the period 1946-1949," according to Buffalo Youth Board, Delinquency and Youth Crime: A Research Report (Buffalo, 1958), 20.
139. Buffalo Courier-Express, Oct. 24, 1958;
140. Buffalo Evening News, July 16, 1958, section 3, p. 46;
141. Buffalo Courier Express, Feb. 17, 1955, p. 11;
142. Buffalo Evening News, Oct. 23, 1958.
143. Buffalo Youth Board, Delinquency and Youth Crime, 20, 25.
144. Delinquency and Youth Crime Ibid., 15, 27-28.
145. "Thirty-First Annual Report of the Buffalo Urban League," 7-8;
146. Graebner, Coming of Age in Buffalo, 34.
147. See also Lee and Lee, Don't Bother Knockin'... This Town's a Rockin', 23-24.
148. "Twenty-Ninth Annual Report of the Buffalo Urban League," 7.
149. William Evans, "Urban League Report to the Board of Directors," Jan. 16, 1945, p. 7, vertical file "Buffalo Urban League" (Buffalo Historical Society).
150. Roy Wilkins to Members of the Board of Directors, memo, April 7, 1958, folder "Crime Blamed on Integration, 1956-59," box A90, series 3, NAACP Papers;
151. John A. Morsell to Obadiah Williams, March 7, 1958, NAACP Papers ibid.
152. There is an emerging literature on the civil rights movement in the North and West. See Jeanne F. Theoharis, Komozi Woodard, and Matthew Countryman, eds., Freedom North: Black Freedom Struggles outside the South, 1940-1980 (New York, 2003);
153. Biondi, To Stand and Fight;
154. Self, American Babylon;
155. and Thomas J. Sugrue, "Affirmative Action from Below: Civil Rights, the Building Trades, and the Politics of Racial Equality in the Urban North, 1945-1969," Journal of American History, 91 (June 2004), 145-73.
156. Biondi, To Stand and Fight, 82.
157. Press Release, 1958, folder "Crime: Juvenile Delinquency 1958-67," box A91, series 3, NAACP Papers; "Thirtieth Annual Report of the Buffalo Urban League," 1956, p. 8,
158. folder "Buffalo, 1926-60," box 6, series 13, Papers of the National Urban League; Buffalo Urban League Directors' Meeting, June 20, 1956, p. 4,
159. Buffalo Urban League Corporate Minutes, 1927-77 (microfilm: frame 41, reel 1).
160. "Holiday Outing Turns into Voyage of Terror," Dallas Times Herald, May 31, 1956, p. 1;
161. "Negro Knifers Turn Outings to 'Nightmare,'" Little Rock Arkansas Gazette, May 31, 1956, p. 10A;
162. "Flashing Knives, Sobs Mark Race Riot on Pleasure Boat," Atlanta Journal, May 31, 1956, p. 8;
163. "Savage Race Riot on Boat," Memphis Commercial Appeal, June 1, 1956, p. 1;
164. "Teen-Age Riot Turns Ship into Nightmare," Charlotte Observer, May 31, 1956, p. 2;
165. "American Negroes in Canadian Riot," Jackson (Miss.) Clarion Ledger, May 31, 1956, p. 1;
166. "Negro Rioters Turn Cruise into Bedlam," Orlando Sentinel, May 31, 1956, p. 1;
167. "Riots Turn Boat Trip into Voyage of Terror," Arkansas Democrat, May 31, 1956, p. 1;
168. "Teenagers Fight on Cruise Ship: Negro Youths Flash Knives and Attack Outnumbered Whites," Nashville Tennessean, May 31, 1956, p. 1.
169. In 1958 Harrison E. Salisbury suggested that the white southern press commonly reported incidents of black juvenile delinquency. See Salisbury, Shook-Up Generation, 135.
170. Memphis Commercial Appeal, June 1, 1956, p. 6;
171. Brian Ward, "Racial Politics, Culture, and the Cole Incident of 1956," in Race and Class in the American South since 1890, ed. Melvyn Stokes and Rick Halpern (Providence, 1994), 189.
172. Nashville Tennessean, June 1, 1956, p. 22;
173. Jackson (Miss.) Daily News, June 11, 1956, p. 4.
174. Evans to Lester B. Granger, Nov. 9, 1956, folder "Buffalo, New York, 1956," box 82, series 1, Papers of the National Urban League. See Buffalo Urban League Directors' Meeting, June 20, 1956, p. 3,
175. Buffalo Urban League Corporate Minutes, 1927-77 (microfilm: frame 40, reel 1).
176. For quotations from hate mail the Urban League received in 1957, see Evans to Board of Directors, July 10, 1957, folder "Buffalo, New York 1957," box 83, series 1, Papers of the National Urban League.
177. The director of the National Urban League, Lester Granger, visited Buffalo in 1956 and expressed concerns that the local chapter lacked effective leadership, was inefficient, and was not following the direction of the national office. Granger to Nelson C. Jackson, memo, Feb. 9, 1956, folder "1956, Buffalo, New York," box 82, series 1, Papers of the National Urban League; Granger to Administration Files, memo, April 23, 1956, Buffalo, New York 1957 ibid.
178. Kenneth Bowen to Current, Feb. 17, 1956, folder "Buffalo, New York 1951-57," box C94, series 3, NAACP Papers; Current to Administrative Files, memo, Feb. 9, 1956, folder "Buffalo, New York, 1956-57," Buffalo, New York 1957 ibid.;
179. Current to Bowen, Feb. 9, 1956, Buffalo, New York 1957 ibid.
180. For William Sims's statement, see Wall Street Journal, April 7, 1958, p. 12.
181. See also "Thirty-First Annual Report of the Buffalo Urban League," 4-5.
182. Wall Street Journal, April 7,1958, p. 12;
183. "Thirty-First Annual Report of the Buffalo Urban League," 4-5;
184. Rebecca Andrews to NAACP, June 11, 1956, folder "Racial Tensions, 1956-57," box A265, series 3, NAACP Papers.
185. Butler, Taylor, and Ryu, "Work and Black Neighborhood Life in Buffalo, 1930-1980," 118-19;
186. Kraus, Race, Neighborhoods, and Community Power, 48-57.
187. Mark Gottdiener, The Theming of America: American Dreams, Media Fantasies, and Themed Environments (New York, 2001), 154;
188. Hannigan, Fantasy City, 190;
189. Nasaw, Going Out, 254-55;
190. Washington Post, March 18, 1961, p. C1;
191. Washington Post ibid., June 29, 2004, p. B1;
192. Washington Post ibid., April 1, 1961, p. D2.
193. Michael Sorkin, ed., Variations on a Theme Park: The New American City and the End of Public Space (New York, 1992), 15.
194. On the Disney parks, see Leonard Mosely, Disney's World (New York, 1985);
195. Steven Watts, The Magic Kingdom: Walt Disney and the American Way of Life (New York, 1997);
196. Eric Avila, Popular Culture in the Age of White Flight: Fear and Fantasy in Suburban Los Angeles (Los Angeles, 2004), 106-44;
197. and Lipsitz, "Making of Disneyland."
198. Things That Aren't There Anymore, WNED-TV (1994).
199. For additional documentaries of Crystal Beach, see [Remember Crystal Beach, dir. Timothy Wagner (Wex Studio, 1993);
200. The Life and Times of Crystal Beach, dir. Paul Kassay Jr. (Crystal Beach Video Group, 1994);
201. The Comet Shines Again, dir. Timothy Wagner (Wex Studio, 1999);
202. and The Canadiana and Crystal Beach, dir. Timothy Wagner (Wex Studio, 1999).
203. Kunz, Buffalo Memories, 278.