Canadian Arctic security issues: Transformation in the post-cold war era

International Journal

Volumn 54, Issue 2, 1999, Pages 201-227

  Huebert, Rob ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0040315216     PISSN: 00207020     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/40203373     Document Type: Article

References (71)

1. Stephen Walt, 'The renaissance of security studies,' International Studies Quarterly 35(June 1991), 211-39.
2. This literature is large and continues to grow. A good overview is Keith Krause and Michael C. Williams, Critical Security Studies: Concepts and Cases (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press 1997).
3. Richard H. Ullman, 'Redefining security,' International Security 8(summer 1983), 129-53.
4. Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade, Towards a Northern Foreign Policy: A Consultation Paper, September 1998, 13-14.
5. See Willy Østreng, 'Political-military relations among the ice states: the conceptual basis of state behaviour,' in Franklyn Griffiths, ed, Arctic Alternatives: Civility or Militarism in the Circumpolar North (Toronto: Science for Peace 1992).
6. Franklyn Griffiths, 'Environment in the US discourse on security: the case of the missing Arctic waters,' in Willy Østreng, National Security and International Environmental Cooperation in the Arctic - the Case of the Northern Sea Route, INSROP Working Paper No. 83-1997, IV.2.1, International Northern Sea Route Programme, 4 July 1997, 194.
7. See Sanjay Chaturvedi, The Polar Regions: A Political Geography (Chichester: John Wiley 1996), 1-11.
8. David Scrivener, Environmental Cooperation in the Arctic: From Strategy to Council, Security Policy Library 00.1/1996, The Norwegian Atlantic Committee, Oslo, 4.
9. International Arctic Science Committee, www.iasc.no/ (1 March 1999).
10. Northern Forum: Membership, www.northernforum.org/ (1 March 1999).
11. David Scrivener, Environmental Cooperation in the Arctic: From Strategy to Council, Security Policy Library no.1, Norwegian Atlantic Committee, Oslo, 1996; and Rob Huebert, 'New directions in circumpolar cooperation: Canada, the Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy, and Arctic Council,' Canadian Foreign Policy 5(winter 1998).
12. David Scrivener, Environmental Cooperation in the Arctic: From Strategy to Council, Security Policy Library no.1, Norwegian Atlantic Committee, Oslo, 1996; and Rob Huebert, 'New directions in circumpolar cooperation: Canada, the Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy, and Arctic Council,' Canadian Foreign Policy 5(winter 1998).
13. Esko Rajakoski, 'Multilateral cooperation to protect the Arctic environment: the Finnish initiative,' in The Arctic: Choices for Peace and Security (Vancouver: Gordon Soules 1989), 54-5.
14. Canada, Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade, 'Canada's proposal to establish an Arctic Council of eight Arctic nations,' 20 April 1995, 1.
15. Bill Clinton, 'Letter to the Congress of the United States,' 10 February 1997, 2.
16. Jan Hoekema and William Rompkey, Committee of the North Atlantic Assembly, 'No Arctic security without Russia,' 30 April 1997, www.vm.ee/nato/related/naa/docu/1997/ap93dsc.htm, 21 July 1998.
17. Treaty Between the United States of America and the Russian Federation on Further Reduction and Limitations of Strategic Offensive Arms, signed 3 January 1993, www.acda.gov/treaties/st2text.htm, 15 June 1998.
18. The United States Senate has ratified START II, but the Russian government continues to postpone ratification. Because recent nuclear testing by India and Pakistan may influence Russian ratification, the preceding discussion may be premature. According to the Russian daily, Komsomolskaya Pravda, the Defence Ministry may be rethinking the value of disarmament. (Igor Kudrik, 'START-2 ratification postponed until fall,' Bellona, 27 June 1998, www.bellona,no/e/russia/nfl/news/980627.htm, 16 July 1998.)
19. The United States Senate has ratified START II, but the Russian government continues to postpone ratification. Because recent nuclear testing by India and Pakistan may influence Russian ratification, the preceding discussion may be premature. According to the Russian daily, Komsomolskaya Pravda, the Defence Ministry may be rethinking the value of disarmament. (Igor Kudrik, 'START-2 ratification postponed until fall,' Bellona, 27 June 1998, www.bellona,no/e/russia/nfl/news/980627.htm, 16 July 1998.)
20. Thomas Nilsen, Igor Kudrik, and Alexander Nikitin, 'The Russian northern fleet: decommissioning of nuclear submarines, Chapter 6,' Bellona, 18 November 1997, www.bellona.no/e/russia/nfl/nfl6.htm, 18 May 1998.
21. United States, Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Nuclear Wastes in the Arctic and Other Regional Impacts from Soviet Nuclear Contamination, OTA-ENV-623, (Washington: US Government Printing, September 1995).
22. Igor Kudrik, 'Sailor burgles nuclear submarine,' Bellona, 19 February 1999, www.bellona.no/e/russia/990219-ik.htm, March 1999.
23. Thomas Nilsen, 'Nuclear submarine hijacking is over: marine desperado kills himself,' Bellona, 12 September 1998, www.bellona.no/e/russia/nfl/news/980912.htm.
24. The most important report provided by the Russian government is A.V. Yablokov, Facts and Problems Related to Radioactive Waste Disposal in Seas Adjacent to the Territory of the Russian Federation (Moscow: Office of the President of the Russian Federation 1993).
25. Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme, Report to Ministers 1996, 51.
26. Thomas Nilsen, Igor Kudrik, and Alexandr Nikitin, 'The Russian northern fleet nuclear submarine accidents,' Bellona, www.bellona.no/e/russia/nfl/nfl8.htm, 21 July 1998.
27. Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme, Report to Ministers: AMAP Interim Report to the Third Ministerial Environmental Conference, Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy, Inuvik, Canada, March 1996, 53-5; and Per Strand, et al, Dumping of Radioactive Waste and Investigation of Radioactive Contamination in the Kara Sea: Extended Summary, Result from three years of investigations (1992-4) by the Joint Norwegian-Russian Expert Group for Investigation of Radioactive Contamination in the Northern Areas.
28. Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme, Report to Ministers: AMAP Interim Report to the Third Ministerial Environmental Conference, Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy, Inuvik, Canada, March 1996, 53-5; and Per Strand, et al, Dumping of Radioactive Waste and Investigation of Radioactive Contamination in the Kara Sea: Extended Summary, Result from three years of investigations (1992-4) by the Joint Norwegian-Russian Expert Group for Investigation of Radioactive Contamination in the Northern Areas.
29. For a critical review of the programme, see Jason Ellis, 'Nunn-Lugar's mid-life crisis,' Survival 39(spring 1997).
30. Igor Kudrik, 'Follow-up of the AMEC declaration,' Bellona, www.bellona.no/e/russia/nfl/news/970611-1.htm, 16 July 1998.
31. NATO, CCMS, www.hq.nato.int/ccms/general/brochnew.htm, 21 July 1998.
32. Bruce G. Blair, Harold A. Fieveson, and Frank N. von Hippel, 'Taking nuclear weapons off hair-trigger alert,' Scientific American 277(November 1997), 75-6; and Thomas Nilsen, 'Accidental nuclear war: increased risk of nuclear missile launch from Russian submarines,' Bellona, 5 May 1998, www.bellona.no/e/russia/nfl/news/98055-2.htm (21 July 1998).
33. Bruce G. Blair, Harold A. Fieveson, and Frank N. von Hippel, 'Taking nuclear weapons off hair-trigger alert,' Scientific American 277(November 1997), 75-6; and Thomas Nilsen, 'Accidental nuclear war: increased risk of nuclear missile launch from Russian submarines,' Bellona, 5 May 1998, www.bellona.no/e/russia/nfl/news/98055-2.htm (21 July 1998).
34. Raphael Vartanov, Alexei Roginko, and Vladimir Kolossov, 'Russian security policy 1945-96: the role of the Arctic, the environment and the NSR,' in Østreng, National Security, 96.
35. House of Commons, Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs and International Trade, Canada and the Circumpolar World: Meeting the Challenges of Cooperation into the Twenty-First Century: Report of the House of Commons Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs and International Trade, April 1997, 88.
36. Ibid, 86.
37. Igor Kudrik, '2 billion USD project: No progress on the Uriy Dolgoruky,' Bellona, 31 October 1997, www.bellona.no/e/russia/nfl/news/971031.htm (16 July 1998).
38. Igor Kudrik, 'Uriy Dolgoruky awaits new design,' Bellona, 9 September 1998, Ibid.
39. United States Navy, 'Navy commission fast attack submarine Seawolf (SSN 21) in Groton, Conn.,' www.chinfo.navy.mil/navpalib/ships/submarines/seawolf/cwolf-com.htm (21 July 1998).
40. Ibid, 'The new attack submarine,' www.chinfo.navy.mil/navpalib/cno/n87/nssn.html (8 February 1999).
41. Ibid, Forward...From the Sea: Anytime, Anywhere: 1998 Department of the Navy Posture Statement, www.chinfo.navy.mil/navpalib/policy/fromsea/pos-pgo2.htm, 2 (21 July 1998).
42. Canada, Department of National Defence, 'CP 140 Aurora northern patrols,' Backgrounder, April 1989.
43. Rob Huebert, 'Polar vision or tunnel vision: the making of Canadian Arctic waters policy,' Marine Policy 19(no4 1995), 351-2.
44. Arctic Waters Pollution Prevention Act, R.S., c.2 (1st Supp.), s.1. For a discussion of the drafting of the act see John Kirton and Don Munton, 'The Manhattan voyages and their aftermath,' in Franklyn Griffiths, ed, Politics of the Northwest Passage (Kingston and Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press 1987).
45. Ibid, 356-60.
46. Clyde Sanger, Ordering the Oceans: The Making of the Law of the Sea (Toronto: University of Toronto Press 1987), 113.
47. Huebert, 'Polar vision,' 353-6.
48. Julie Ferguson, Through a Canadian Periscope: The Story of the Canadian Submarine Service (Toronto: Dundurn 1995), 301-18.
49. Donat Pharand, Canada's Arctic Waters in International Law (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1988), 205-7.
50. As an aside, the Americans are preparing to release scientific information gathered by their submarines in the Arctic. The area from which this information is to be released has been called the 'Gore Box' since it was Vice-President Al Gore who pushed for the declassification of this information. The Box is entirely within international waters; it specifically stops at the Canadian 200-mile exclusive economic zone. The information will not include submarine tracks in the disputed waterway, but it may provide indirect evidence of American submarine passages. If any track leads to the Passage it is unlikely that the submarine immediately stopped and turned around as soon as Canadian waters were reached. National Snow and Ice Data Center (NSIDC) www-nsdic colorado.edu/NSIDC.htm.
51. Steve Weatherbe, 'Global warming leaves mark on Canadian Arctic, conference told,' Globe and Mail (Toronto), 23 February 1999.
52. Griffiths, 'Environment in the US discourse on security,' 144-5.
53. George Lindsey, 'Strategic stability in the Arctic,' in Fred Folow and Fred Crickard, eds, Maritime Defence Strategy and Resource Development in Canada's Arctic, Niobe Papers no 1 (Halifax: Nautica 1990), 37.
54. Ron Purver, 'Arctic arms control: constraints and opportunities,' in Folow and Crickard, eds, Defence Strategy, 20.
55. Canada, Government of Canada Response to the Report of Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs and International Trade, Canada and the Circumpolar World: Meeting the Challenges of Cooperation into the Twenty-First Century, nd.
56. Canada, Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade, Canada in the World: Government Statement (Ottawa: Canada Communication Group 1995), 29.
57. Donat Pharand, 'The case for an Arctic region council and a treaty proposal,' Revue generate de droit 23 (no 2 1992).
58. Alan Saunders 'Pondering an Arctic Council,' Northern Perspective 19 (summer 1991), 1.
59. 'Canada's proposal to establish an Arctic Council.'
60. Declaration on the Establishment of the Arctic Council, 1.
61. Canada and the Circumpolar World.
62. Government of Canada Response.
63. Canada and the Circumpolar World, 83.
64. Ibid, 89, 92.
65. Ibid, 99.
66. Ibid, 100.
67. Government of Canada Response, 29.
68. ibid, 31.
69. Canada, Department of External Affairs, Arms Control Division, 'Arctic security,' in Griffiths, ed, Arctic Alternatives, 49.
70. Government of Canada Response, 30.
71. Ibid, 2.