Nomadic territories: A human rights approach to nomadic peoples' land rights

Human Rights Law Review

Volumn 7, Issue 4, 2007, Pages 681-716

  Gilbert, Jérémie ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ULSTER   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 36549088701     PISSN: 14617781     EISSN: 17441021     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/hrlr/ngm030     Document Type: Article

References (188)

1. Kenya Land Commission Report (Nairobi: Government Printer, 1933) at 642.
2. As quoted in Swift and Perry, Nomadic People Speak: Vanishing Footprints (Oxford: New Internationalist Publication, 2001) at 123.
3. See Khazanov, Nomads and the Outside World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983). A nomadic way of life or nomadic lifestyle refers to a life organised around cyclical or seasonal patterns.
4. The battle between Cain, the farmer (the 'tiller of the ground'), and Abel, the nomad (the 'keeper of sheep'), saw the defeat of the nomad. See van den Brink et al., 'The Economics of Cain and Abel: Agro-Pastoral Property Rights in the Sahel', (1995) 31 Journal of Development Studies 373.
5. Report of the International Commission of Inquiry on Darfur to the United Nations Secretary-General, Pursuant to Security Council Resolution 1564 of 18 September 2005, 25 January 2005 at para. 203 (see also paras 52-58).
6. See also Markakis, Pastoralism on the Margins (London: Minority Rights Group, 2004).
7. For an informed discussion, see Hintjens, 'When Identity Becomes a Knife: Reflecting on the Genocide in Rwanda', (2001) 1 Ethnicities 25.
8. See also Lewis and Knight, The Two of Rwanda (Copenhagen: International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs, 1995).
9. See Khazanov, supra n. 3;
10. and Beals, Nomads and Empire Builders (New York: Citadel Press, 1965).
11. See, for example, Vignon, Un programme de politique coloniale, les questions indigènes (Paris: Plon, 1919).
12. For examples and references see Noyes, 'Nomadic Landscapes and the Colonial Frontier: The Problem of Nomadism in German South West Africa', in Russell (ed.), Colonial Frontiers, Indigenous-European Encounters in Settler Societies (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2001) at 198.
13. Criminal Tribes Act 1871, this was replaced with the Habitual Offenders Act 1959. See National Human Rights Commission of India, 'Habitual Offenders Act to be Repealed: NHRC Takes Up the Cause of the Denotified and Nomadic Tribes', March 2000.
14. Paragraph xii, Council of Europe Parliamentary Assembly Recommendation 1203 (1993) on Gypsies in Europe, 2 February 1993, at para. xii. Article 5(1)(e), ECHR makes an exception to the right to liberty and security of person for 'the lawful detention of persons for the prevention of the spreading of infectious diseases, of persons of unsound mind, alcoholics or drug addicts, or vagrants'.
15. See, for example, Ingold, Riches and Woodburn, Hunters and Gatherers Volumes 1 and 2 (New York: Berg, 1991);
16. and Lee and Daly, The Cambridge Encyclopaedia of Hunters and Gatherers (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005).
17. The existing literature usually addresses specific geographical areas of the globe but do not address the rights of nomadic peoples in a universal way. See, for example, Barume, Etude sur le cadre légal pour la protection des droits des peuples indigenes et tribaux au Cameroun (Geneva: Organisation Internationale du Travail, 2005);
18. and Osherenko, 'Indigenous Rights in Russia: Is Title to Land Essential for Cultural Survival?', (2001) 13 Georgetown International Environmental Law Review 695.
19. See Bogue, 'Apology for Nomadology', (2004) 6 Interventions 169;
20. and Berland and Salo, 'Peripatetic Communities: An Introduction', (1986) 21/22 Nomadic Peoples 1.
21. Semi-nomadic peoples are peoples who move seasonally but have permanent homes for part of the year. See, for example, Council of Europe Committee of Ministers Recommendation (2004)14, 1 December 2004, which refers to semi-nomadic peoples as peoples who set up their winter residence for a maximum period of six months and then move on.
22. See Liegeois and Gheorghe, Roma/Gypsies: A European Minority (London: Minority Rights Group, 1995).
23. See Schweitzer et al. (eds), Hunters and Gatherers in the Modern World: Conflict, Resistance, and Self-Determination (New York: Berghahn Books, 2000).
24. Wheaton, Elements of International Law (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1936) at 18.
25. Flanagan, 'The Agricultural Argument and Original Appropriation: Indian Lands and Political Philosophy', (1989) 22 Canadian Journal of Political Science 589.
26. See also Bassett, 'The Myth of the Nomad in Property Law, (1986) 4 Journal of Law and Religion 133.
27. See Locke, Two Treatises of Government (London: Dent, 1924).
28. Tully, Strange Multiplicity: Constitutionalism in an Age of Diversity (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995) at 72.
29. See Meek, Social Science and the Ignoble Savage (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970).
30. Rousseau, Discours sur l'origine de l'inégalité (Paris: 10/18, 1963). Similarly, in Rousseau, Du contrat social (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972), he wrote: 'Pour autoriser un droit de premiére occupation, il faut qu'on en prenne possession non par une vaine cérémonie, mais par le travail et la culture' [to authorise a right to first occupation, you have to take possession not through formal ceremony, but through work and cultivation (Author's translation)].
31. Kant, Perpetual Peace and Other Essays (Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company, 1983) at 122.
32. Bell,'Forum on R. Marshall: Was Amerindian Dispossession Lawful? The Response of 19th Century Maritime Intellectuals', (2000) 23 Dalhousie Law Journal 168 at 179.
33. Ingold et al., Hunters and Gatherers: Property, Power and Ideology Volume 2, supra n. 12.
34. Vattel, Le droit des gens, ou principes de la loi naturelle (1758), reprinted as The Law of Nations or the Principles of Natural Law (Washington: Carnegie Institute, 1916) at 37.
35. Ibid. at 85.
36. See Fitzpatrick, 'Terminal Legality: Imperialism and the (de)Composition of Law', in Kirkby and Coleborne (eds), Law, History, Colonialism, The Reach of Empire (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2001) 14.
37. Vattel, supra n. 27 at 85.
38. One of the only exceptions being Wolff, Jus Gentium Methodo Scientifica Pertractum (1764) (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1934), who held that single families and nomadic tribes had a right to the land they inhabited.
39. Lawrence, The Principles of International Law (London: MacMillan and Co., 1914) at 59.
40. See, for example, Goguet, De l'origine des lois, des arts, et des sciences, et leur progrès chez les anciens peuples (Paris: Chez Desaint and Saillant, 1758).
41. Burke, 'Let Out in the Cold: The Problem with Aboriginal Title under Section 35(1) of the Constitution Act, 1982 for Historically Nomadic Aboriginal Peoples', (2000) 38 Osgoode Hall Law Journal 1 at 29, n. 80.
42. Johnson v M'Intosh 21 U.S. 543 at 573-90.
43. For a comprehensive overview of terra nullius, see Bedjaoui, Terra nullius, 'droits' historiques et autodetermination (The Hague: Sijthoff, 1975).
44. Advisory Opinion, ICJ Reports 1975, 12.
45. Ibid. at para. 152.
46. Ibid.
47. (1992) 107 ALR 1.
48. See Reynolds, Aboriginal Sovereignty (Sydney: Allen and Unwin, 1996).
49. Hill, 'Blackfellas and Whitefellas: Aboriginal Land Rights, The Mabo Decision, and the Meaning of Land, (1995) 17 Human Rights Quarterly 303.
50. Mabo, supra n. 42 at para. 41.
51. Territorial Dispute (Libya v Chad), ICJ Reports 1994, 6.
52. On this issue, see the Dissenting Opinion of Judge ad hoc Sette-Camara, ibid.
53. Eritrea v Yemen (1998) 114 ILR 1 at para. 123.
54. For an analysis of the decision see Reisman,'The Government of the State of Eritrea and the Government of the Republic of Yeman. Award of the Arbitral Tribunal in the First Stage of the Proceedings. (Territorial Sovereignty and Scope of the Dispute)', (1999) 93 American Journal of International Law 668.
55. See, for example, Casimir and Rao (eds), Mobility and Territoriality (New York: Berg, 1992).
56. Delenze and Guattari, Mille Plateaux (Paris: Minuit, 1980) at 609.
57. Ibid. at 10.
58. For references, see generally Casimir and Rao, supra n. 48.
59. There is no state with a nomadic structure. The closest example is the case of the Western Sahara. In the past, Mongolia was often regarded as a 'nomadic' empire; however the contemporary status of the state does not make any specific recognition of nomadism. See Humphrey and Sneath, The End of Nomadism Society? Society, State and the Environment in Inner Asia (Durham: Duke University Press, 1999);
60. Allsen, 'Sharing Out the Empire: Apportioned Lands Under the Mongols', in Khazanov and Wink (eds), Nomads in the Sedentary World (London: Curzon, 2001) 172;
61. and Mearns, 'Community, Collective Action and Common Grazing: The Case of Post-Socialist Mongolia, (1996) 32 Journal of Development Studies 297.
62. Jennings and Watts, Oppenheim's International Law, Volume 1, 9th edn (London: Longman, 1992) at 563-4.
63. See Castellino, 'Territory and Identity in International Law: The Struggle for Self-Determination in the Western Sahara', (1999) 28 Journal of International Studies 523.
64. See Thornberry, Indigenous Peoples and Human Rights (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2002)
65. and Anaya, Indigenous Peoples in International Law, 2nd edn (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004).
66. For example, see Makkonen, Identity, Difference and Otherness, The Concepts of 'Peoples, 'Indigenous People' and 'Minority' in International Law (Helsinki: Erik Castren Institute of International Law and Human Rights, 2000).
67. Martinez-Cobo, Study of the Problem of Discrimination Against Indigenous Populations, E/CNA/Sub.2/1986/7/Add.4 at para. 379.
68. Article 1 (1), Convention No. 169 on Indigenous and Tribal Peoples 1989, 1650 UNTS 383.
69. World Bank, 'Operational Policy and Bank Procedures on Indigenous Peoples', 10 May 2005, OF/BP 4.10.
70. However, see the debates regarding the Roma/Gypsies originating in northern India and now living in other continents: Hernard, 'The Building Blocks for an Emerging Regime for the Protection of a Controversial Case of Cultural Diversity: The Roma, (2003) 10 International Journal on Minority and Group Rights 183.
71. See Report of the Seminar on Multiculturalism in Africa: Peaceful and Constructive Group Accomodation in Situations Involving Minorities and Indigenous Peoples, Arusha, United Republic of Tanzania, 13-15 May 2000,18 May 2000, E/CN.4/Sub.2/AC.5/2000/WP3;
72. Report on the Second Workshop on Multiculturalism in Africa: Peaceful and Constructive Group Accommodation in Situations Involving Minorities and Indigenous Peoples, Kidal, Mali, 8-13 January 2001, 2 April 2001, E/ CX4/Sub.2/AC.5/2001/3;
73. and Report on the Third Workshop on Multicultural ism in Africa: Peaceful and Constructive Group Accommodation in Situations Involving Minorities and Indigenous Peoples, Gabarone, 18-22 February 2002, 17 June 2002, E/CN.4/Sub.2/AC.4/2002/4.
74. Report of the African Commissions Working Group of Experts on Indigenous Populations/Communities, 14 May 2003 at 92.
75. Article 14, FLO Convention No. 169.
76. ILO Convention No. 107 Concerning the Protection and Integration of Indigenous and Other Tribal and Semi-tribal Populations in Independent Countries, 1328 UNTS 247. This Convention is no longer open for ratification but it is still in force for 18 states.
77. ILO Recommendation 104 concerning the protection and integration of indigenous and other tribal and semi-tribal populations in independent countries, 5 June 1957. The term 'semi-tribal' refers to 'persons who, although they are in the process of losing their tribal characteristics, are not yet integrated into the national community'.
78. [emphasis added].
79. See Barsh, 'Revision of ILO Convention No. 107', (1987) 81 American Journal of International Law 756.
80. International Labour Conference, Partial Revision of the Indigenous and Tribal Populations Convention, 1957 (No. 107), 75th Session, Report IV (1), 1987 at 9.
81. Ibid. at 65-6.
82. Ibid.
83. International Labour Conference, Partial Revision of the Indigenous and Tribal Populations Convention, 1957 (No. 107), 76th Session, Report IV (2B), 1989 at 14.
84. Article 14, ILO Convention No. 169.
85. For a discussion on this issue, see, for example: ILO-ITP Project, 'Strengthening the Participation of Pastoralists and Hunter-Gatherers in the Kenya Constitution Review Process', November 2001, available at: www.ilo.org.
86. These are Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Denmark, Dominica, Ecuador, Fiji, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Nepal, Netherlands, Norway, Paraguay, Peru, Spain and the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela.
87. 999 UNTS 171.
88. Para. 7, General Comment No. 23: Article 27 (Rights of Minorities), HRI/ GEN/1/Rev.7 at 158;
89. 1-3 IHRR 1 (1994).
90. See Scheinin, 'The Right to Enjoy a Distinct Culture: Indigenous and Competing Uses of Land', in Orlin et al. (eds), The Jurisprudence of Human Rights: A Comparative Interpretive Approach (Turku: Åbo Akademi University Institute for Human Rights, 2000) at 159.
91. See Länsman et al. v Finland (511/1992), CCPR/C/52/D/511/1992 (1994); 2 IHRR 287 (1995);
92. Länsman et al. v Finland (671/1995), CCPR/C/58/D/671/1995 (1996); 4 IHRR 405 (1997);
93. and Kitok v Sweden (197/1985), CCPR/C/33/D/197/1985 (1988).
94. Sara et al. v Finland (431/1990), CCPR/C/50/D/431/1990 (1994); 1-3 IHRR 14 (1993) at para. 6.4.
95. Ibid. at para. 7.4.
96. Länsman et al. v Finland (511/1992), supra n. 78;
97. Kitok v Sweden, supra n. 78;
98. and Lubicon Lake Band v Canada (167/1984), CCPR/C/38/D/167/1984 (1990).
99. Diergaardt et al. v Namibia (760/1997), CCPR/C/69/D/760/1997 (2000); 8 IHRR 46 (2001) at para. 10.6.
100. Report on the Situation of Human Rights in Ecuador, 24 April 1997, Ser.L/ V/II.96.Doc.10 Rev 1 at 115.
101. Mayagna (Sumo) Awas Tingni Community v Nicaragua IACtHR Series C 79 (2001); 10 IHRR 758 (2003).
102. See Pasqualucci, 'The Evolution of Indigenous Rights in the Inter-American Human Rights System, (2006) 6 Human Rights Law Review 281.
103. Testimony of Galio Enrique Gurdián Gurdiánm reproduced in the judgment, ibid.
104. Ibid. at para. 83d.
105. Ibid. at para. 149.
106. 'Aboriginal' title is the terminology used in Canada whereas Australian jurisdictions refer to 'native' title. See McNeil, Common Law Aboriginal Title (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989).
107. See, for example, the judgment of the Supreme Court of Canada (SCC), Delgamuukw v British Columbia (1997) 3 SCR 1010;
108. and Dick, 'Comprehending "the genius of the common law" - Native Title in Australia and Canada Compared Post-Delgamuukw', (1999) 5 Australian Journal of Human Rights 1.
109. See, for example, from Canada: Calder v Attorney-General of British Columbia (1973) 34 DLR (3d) 145;
110. Hamlet of Baker Lake v Minister of Indian Affairs and Others (1979) 107 DLR (3d) 513;
111. R v Adams (1996) 138 DLR (4th) 657 (SCC);
112. R v Van der Peet (1996) 137 DLR (4th) 289 (SCC);
113. and Delqamuukw and Others v British Columbia, ibid.;
114. and from Australia: Mabo and Others, supra n. 40;
115. and Members of the Yorta Yorta Aboriginal Community v Victoria [2002] HCA 58; 214 CLR 422.
116. For examples, see the decision of the Supreme Court of Appeal of South Africa in Richtersveld Community and Others v Alexkor Limited and the Government of the Republic of South Africa, Case No. 488/2001, 24 March 2003;
117. and the decision of the Federal Court of Malaysia in Adong bin Kuwau v Kerajaan Negeri Johor [1997] 1 MLJ 418,
118. [1998] 2 MLJ 158.
119. See also Gilbert, 'Historical Indigenous Peoples' Land Claims: A Comparative and International Approach to the Common Law Doctrine on Indigenous Title', (2007) 56 International and Comparative Law Quarterly 583;
120. and Bennett and Powell, 'Aboriginal Title in South Africa Revisited', (1999) 15 South African Journal of Human Rights 449.
121. McNeil, supra n. 88 at 202.
122. Ibid. at 204.
123. Delqamuukw v British Columbia, supra n. 89 at para. 143.
124. Assembly of the First Nations, 'The Amicus Curiae Brief of the Assembly of First Nations', (2000) 22 Human Rights Quarterly at 580.
125. Richtersveld Community and Others, supra n. 91 at para. 23.
126. Ibid. at para. 24.
127. Delgamuukw v British Columbia, supra n. 89 at para. 149.
128. Burke, supra n. 34.
129. Delqamuukw v British Columbia, supra n. 89 at para. 139.
130. Burke, supra n. 34 at 26.
131. Ibid. at 31.
132. R v Marshall; R v Bernard (SCC) [2005] 2 SCR 220, (2005) SCC 43.
133. See the comments of LeBel J in R v Marshall, ibid. at para. 126: 'nomadic life might have given rise to specific rights exercised at specific places or within identifiable territories, but never to a connection with the land itself in the absence of evidence of intensive and regular use of the land.'
134. See Borrows, 'Listening for a Change: The Courts and Oral Tradition, (2001) 39 Osgoode Hall Law Journal 1:
135. and Cooter and Fikentscher, 'Indian Common Law: The Role of Custom in American Indian Tribal Courts, (1998) 46 American Journal of Comparative Law 509.
136. For example, nomadic or semi-nomadic Roma communities would not qualify as indigenous. See Henrard, 'The Building Blocks for an Emerging Regime for the Protection of a Controversial Case of Cultural Diversity: The Roma', (2004) 10 International Journal on Minority and Group Rights 183.
137. See Kingsbury, 'Indigenous Peoples in International Law: A Constructivist Approach to the Asian Controversy, (1998) 29 American Journal of International Law 414;
138. and Hitchcock, 'Human Rights and Indigenous Peoples in Africa and Asia', in Forsythe and McMahon (eds), Human Rights and Diversity: Area Studies Revisited (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2002) at 205.
139. The text of the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples was adopted by the Human Rights Council on 29 June 2006, A/HRC/1/L.10, and by the UN General Assembly on 13 September 2007, GA/10612. See Gilbert, 'Indigenous Rights in the Making: The United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples', (2007) 14 International Journal on Minority and Group Rights 207.
140. On this issue, see generally Casimir and Rao, supra n. 48.
141. Bjørklund, 'Sámi Reindeer Pastoralism as Indigenous Resource Management System in Northern Norway: A Contribution to the Common Property Debate', (1990) 21 Development and Change 75.
142. Berger, 'Conflict Over Natural Resources Among Pastoralists in Northern Kenya: A Look at Recent Initiatives in Conflict Resolution', (2003) 15 Journal of International Development at 246.
143. Campbell, 'Ethnic Minorities and Development, (2004) 4 Ethnicities 5 at 12.
144. The African Commission's Working Group of Experts on Indigenous Populations/Communities reported that 'many African governments have tended to apply development paradigms focusing on assimilationist approaches designed to turn indigenous peoples into sedenterized crop cultivating farmers on the assumption that the ways of life of indigenous peoples have to change because they are 'primitive', 'backward', 'unproductive' and degrading to the environment.' See Report of the African Commission's Working Group of Experts on Indigenous Populations/Communities, 22 April 2005.
145. Hitchcock, '"Hunting is Our Heritage", The Struggle for Hunting and Gathering Rights among the San of Southern Africa', Paper presented at the 8th International Conference on Hunting and Gathering Societies, October 1998, Osaka, Japan.
146. The Royal Proclamation, reprinted in Kennedy (ed), Documents of the Canadian Constitution, 1759-1915 (Toronto: Oxford University Press, 1918) at 20.
147. For example, see Treaty 3 between Her Majesty the Queen and the Saulteaux Tribe of the Ojibbeway Indians 1873, which provides: 'Her Majesty further agrees with her said Indians, that they, the said Indians, shall have the right to pursue their avocations of hunting and fishing throughout the tract surrendered.'
148. See Miller, 'Native Rights: Indians Hunting and Fishing Rights', (1991) 21 Environmental Law 1291.
149. Article 23(1), ILO Convention No. 169.
150. Human Rights Committee, supra n. 76 at para. 7.
151. Concluding Observations of the Human Rights Committee: Australia, 24 July 2000, A/55/40 at paras 498-528.
152. Lubicon Lake Band, supra n. 81
153. Ibid. at para. 32.2.
154. Ibid. at para. 33.
155. See also the HRC's decision in see Jonassen et al. v Norway (942/ 2000), CCPR/C/76/D/881/1999 (2002); 10 IHRR 323 (2003), which examines grazing rights.
156. Concluding Observations of the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination: Sweden, 1 May 2001, CERD/C/304/Add.103 at para. 13.
157. Case 11.140, Mary and Carrie Dann v United States Report No. 75/02 (2002); 10 IHRR 1143 (2003).
158. Ibid. at para. 41.
159. Ibid. at para. 131.
160. World Bank Operational Manual, 'Involuntary Resettlement', June 1990, OD 4.30.
161. Krakover, 'Urban Settlement Program and Land Dispute Resolution: The State of Israel Versus the Negev Bedouin', (1999) 47 GeoJournal 551.
162. Menon, 'International Boundaries - A Case Study of the Guyana-Surinam Boundary', (1978) 27 International and Comparative Law Quarterly 738 at 740. However, he notes that there were a few exceptions, for example, the Boro people of the west Amazon, the Maidu of California and the Vedda of Ceylon.
163. See Brody, The Other Side of Eden, Hunter-Gatherers, Farmers and the Shaping of the World (London: Faber and Faber Ltd, 2001).
164. As quoted in Sillanpää, Impact of International Law on Indigenous Rights in Northern Europe (Ottawa: Indian and Northern Affairs Canada, 1992) at 6.
165. East, 'Ethiopia-Somalia', in Day (ed), Border and Territorial Disputes, 2nd edn (Harlow: Longman, 1987) at 114-6.
166. As quoted by the International Court of Justice in Territorial Dispute (Libya v Chad), supra n. 44 at para. 53. For the historical background to this treaty,
167. see Dadi, 'Mémoire du Gouvernement de la Republique du Tchad, Chapitre III', ibid.
168. ILO Recommendation 104, supra n. 65 at para. 35.
169. Jowitt, Dictionary of English Law, 1st edn (London: Sweet and Maxwell, 1959) at 279.
170. For an overview on the situations of the Travellers, see Keane, 'International Law and the Ethnicity of Irish Travellers, (2005) 11 Washington and Lee Race and Ethnic Ancestry Law Journal 43.
171. As regards Roma/Gypsy communities it is estimated that 20 to 40 percent of the Roma population in Europe retain a nomadic or semi-nomadic lifestyle, see Liegeois and Gheorghe, supra n. 16.
172. For an overview of the situation of the Roma, see Pogany, Accomodating an Emergent National Identity: The Roma of Central and Eastern Europe', (1999) 6 International Journal on Minority and Group Rights 149.
173. See Gilbert,'Still No Place to Go: Nomadic Peoples' Territorial Rights in Europe', (2004/2005) 4 European Yearbook on Minority Issues 141.
174. See Council of Europe Parliamentary Assembly Recommendation 563 (1969) on the Situation of Gypsies and Other Travellers in Europe, 30 September 1969;
175. Council of Europe Committee of Ministers Resolution (75) 13 on the Social Situation of Nomads in Europe, 22 May 1975;
176. Council of Europe Committee of Ministers Recommendation No. R (83) 1 on Stateless Nomads and Nomads of Undetermined Nationality, 22 February 1983;
177. and Standing Conference of Local and Regional Authorities of Europe Resolution 125 (1981) on the Role and Responsibility of Local and Regional Authorities in Regard to the Cultural and Social Problems of Populations of Nomadic Origin, 29 October 1981.
178. Council of Europe Parliamentary Assembly Recommendation 1203 (1993) on Gypsies in Europe, 2 February 1993.
179. Council of Europe European Commission Against Racism and Intolerance General Policy Recommendation No. 3: Combating Racism and Intolerance Against Roma/Gypsies, 6 March 1998, CRI (98) 29 rev.
180. CERD, General Recomendation XXVII on Discrimination against Roma, 16 August 2000, HRI/GEN/l/Rev.7 at 224; 8 IHRR 310 (2001) at para. 32.
181. Ibid. at para. 31.
182. Concluding Observations of the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination: United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, 10 December 2003, CERD/C/63/CO/11 at para. 22.
183. Concluding Observations of the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination: United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, 18 March 1996, CERD/C/304/Add.9 at para. 15.
184. ILO Report of the Director-General, March 2001, GB.280/18 at para. 25.
185. Ibid. at para. 28.
186. Ibid.
187. OSCE,'Report on the Situation of Roma and Sinti in the OSCE Area: 10 March 2000 at 101.
188. Ibid. at 110.