Ecology of West Nile virus transmission and its impact on birds in the western hemisphere

Auk

Volumn 124, Issue 4, 2007, Pages 1121-1136

  Kilpatrick, A Marm ^a   LaDeau, Shannon L ^b   Marra, Peter P ^b  

^a The Consortium for Conservation Medicine   (United States)

^b SMITHSONIAN CONSERVATION BIOLOGY INSTITUTE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

BIRD; DISEASE SPREAD; DISEASE TRANSMISSION; ECOLOGICAL IMPACT; HOST-PATHOGEN INTERACTION; MORBIDITY; MORTALITY; VIRAL DISEASE;

NEW YORK [UNITED STATES]; NORTH AMERICA; UNITED STATES;

AVES; WEST NILE VIRUS;

EID: 36448941436     PISSN: 00048038     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1642/0004-8038(2007)124[1121:EOWNVT]2.0.CO;2     Document Type: Review

References (110)

1. ANDREADIS, T. G., J. F. ANDERSON, C. R. VOSSBRINCK, AND A. J. MAIN. 2004. Epidemiology of West Nile virus in Connecticut: A five-year analysis of mosquito data 1999-2003. Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases 4:360-378.
2. APPERSON, C. S., B. A. HARRISON, T. R. UNNASCH, H. K. HASSAN, W. S. IRBY, H. M. SAVAGE, S. E. ASPEN, D. W. WATSON, L. M. RUEDA, B. R. ENGBER, AND R. S. NASCI. 2002. Host-feeding habits of Culex and other mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) in the Borough of Queens in New York City, with characters and techniques for identification of Culex mosquitoes. Journal of Medical Entomology 39:777-785.
3. APPERSON, C. S., H. K. HASSAN, B. A. HARRISON, H. M. SAVAGE, S. E. ASPEN, A. FARAJOLLAHI, W. CRANS, T. J. DANIELS, R. C. FALCO, M. BENEDICT, AND OTHERS. 2004. Host feeding patterns of established and potential mosquito vectors of West Nile virus in the eastern United States. Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases 4:71-82.
4. BERNARD, K. A., J. G. MAFFEI, S. A. JONES, E. B. KAUFFMAN, G. D. EBEL, A. P. DUPUIS II, K. A. NGO, D. C. NICHOLAS, D. M. YOUNG, P. Y. SHI, AND OTHERS. 2001. West Nile virus infection in birds and mosquitoes, New York State, 2000. Emerging Infectious Diseases 7:679-685.
5. BEVEROTH, T. A., M. P. WARD, R. L. LAMPMAN, A. M. RINGIA, AND R. J. NOVAK. 2006. Changes in seroprevalence of West Nile virus across Illinois in free-ranging birds from 2001 through 2004. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 74:174-179.
6. BLACKMORE, C. G. M., L. M. STARK, W. C. JETER, R. L. OLIVERI, R. G. BROOKS, L. A. CONTI, AND S. T. WIERSMA. 2003. Surveillance results from the first West Nile virus transmission season in Florida, 2001. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 69:141-150.
7. BOLLING, B. G., C. G. MOORE, S. L. ANDERSON, C. D. BLAIR, AND B. J. BEATY. 2007. Entomological studies along the Colorado front range during a period of intense West Nile virus activity. Journal of the American Mosquito Control Association 23:37-46.
8. BONTER, D. N, AND W. M. HOCHACHKA. 2003. Combined data of Project FeederWatch and the Christmas Bird Count indicate declines of chickadees and corvids: Possible impacts of West Nile virus. American Birds: The 103rd Christmas Bird Count:22-25.
9. BOSCH, I., F. HERRERA, J.-C. NAVARRO, M. LENTINO, A. DUPUIS, J. MAFFEI, M. JONES, E. FERNANDEZ, N. PÉREZ, J. PÉREZ-EMAN, AND OTHERS. 2007. West Nile virus, Venezuela. Emerging Infectious Diseases 13:651-653.
10. BRAULT, A. C., C. Y.-H. HUANG, S. A. LANGEVIN, R. M. KINNEY, R. A. BOWEN, W. N. RAMEY, N. A. PANELLA, E. C. HOLMES, A. M. POWERS, AND B. R. MILLER. 2007. A single positively selected West Nile viral mutation confers increased virogenesis in American Crows. Nature Genetics 39:1162-1166.
11. BRAULT, A. C., S. A. LANGEVIN, R. A. BOWEN, N. A. PANELLA, B. J. BIGGERSTAFF, B. R. MILLER, AND N. KOMAR. 2004. Differential virulence of West Nile strains for American Crows. Emerging Infectious Diseases 10:2161-2168.
12. CAFFREY, C. 2003. Determining impacts of West Nile virus on crows and other birds. American Birds: The 103rd Christmas Bird Count:12-13.
13. CAFFREY, C., S. C. R. SMITH, AND T. J. WESTON. 2005. West Nile virus devastates an American Crow population. Condor 107:128-132.
14. CENTERS FOR DISEASE CONTROL AND PREVENTION. 2007. West Nile virus. [Online.] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia. Available at www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dvbid/westnile/index.htm.
15. CHANG, G.-J. J., B. S. DAVIS, C. STRINGFIELD, AND C. LUTZ. 2007. Prospective immunization of the endangered California Condors (Gymnogyps californianus) protects this species from lethal West Nile virus infection. Vaccine 25:2325-2330.
16. CLARK, L., J. HALL, R. MCLEAN, M. DUNBAR, K. KLENK, R. BOWEN, AND C. A. SMERASKI. 2006. Susceptibility of Greater Sage-Grouse to experimental infection with West Nile virus. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 42:14-22.
17. COHEN, J. K., A. M. KILPATRICK, F. C. STROUD, K. PAUL, F. WOLF, AND J. G. ELSE. 2007. Seroprevalence of West Nile virus in non-human primates as related to mosquito abundance at two national primate research centers. Comparative Medicine 57:115-119.
18. CRUZ, L., V. M. CARDENAS, M. ABARCA, T. RODRIGUEZ, R. F. REYNA, M. V. SERPAS, R. E. FONTAINE, D. W. C. BEASLEY, A. P. A. T. DA ROSA, S. C. WEAVER, AND OTHERS. 2005. Short report: Serological evidence of West Nile virus activity in El Salvador. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 72:612-615.
19. CUPP, E. W., H. K. HASSAN, X. YUE, W. K. OLDLAND, B. M. LILLEY, AND T. R. UNNASCH. 2007. West Nile virus infection in mosquitoes in the Mid-South USA, 2002-2005. Journal of Medical Entomology 44:117-125.
20. DAVIS, C. T., G. D. EBEL, R. S. LANCIOTTI, A. C. BRAULT, H. GUZMAN, M. SIIRIN, A. LAMBERT, R. E. PARSONS, D. W. C. BEASLEY, R. J. NOVAK, AND OTHERS. 2005. Phylogenetic analysis of North American West Nile virus isolates, 2001-2004: Evidence for the emergence of a dominant genotype. Virology 342:252-265.
21. DOHM, D. J., M. L. O'GUINN, AND M. J. TURELL. 2002a. Effect of environmental temperature on the ability of Culex pipiens (Diptera: Culicidae) to transmit West Nile virus. Journal of Medical Entomology 39:221-225.
22. DOHM, D. J., M. R. SARDELIS, AND M. J. TURELL. 2002b. Experimental vertical transmission of West Nile virus by Culex pipiens (Diptera: Culicidae). Journal of Medical Entomology 39:640-644.
23. DUPUIS, A. P., II, P. P. MARRA, AND L. D. KRAMER. 2003. Serologic evidence of West Nile virus transmission, Jamaica, West Indies. Emerging Infectious Diseases 9:860-863.
24. DUPUIS, A. P., II, P. P. MARRA, R. REITSMA, M. J. JONES, K. L. LOUIE, AND L. D. KRAMER. 2005. Short report: Serologic evidence for West Nile virus transmission in Puerto Rico and Cuba. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 73:474-476.
25. EBEL, G. D., J. CARRICABURU, D. YOUNG, K. A. BERNARD, AND L. D. KRAMER. 2004. Genetic and phenotypic variation of West Nile virus in New York, 2000-2003. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 71:493-500.
26. EDMAN, J. D., AND D. J. TAYLOR. 1968. Culex nigripalpus: Seasonal shift in the bird-mammal feeding ratio in a mosquito vector of human encephalitis. Science 161:67-68.
27. EIDSON, M., L. [D.] KRAMER, W. STONE, Y. HAGIWARA, AND K. SCHMIT. 2001. Dead bird surveillance as an early warning system for West Nile virus. Emerging Infectious Diseases 7:631-635.
28. ESTRADA-FRANCO, J. G., R. NAVARRO-L OPEZ, D. W. C. BEASLEY, L. COFFEY, A.-S. CARRARA, A. [P. A.] T. DA ROSA, T. CLEMENTS, E. WANG, G. V. LUDWIG, A. C. CORTES, AND OTHERS. 2003. West Nile virus in Mexico: Evidence of widespread circulation since July 2002. Emerging Infectious Diseases 9:1604-1607.
29. EZENWA, V. O., M. S. GODSEY, R. J. KING, AND S. C. GUPTILL. 2006. Avian diversity and West Nile virus: Testing associations between biodiversity and infectious disease risk. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series B 273:109-117.
30. FANG, Y., AND W. K. REISEN. 2006. Previous infection with West Nile or St. Louis encephalitis viruses provides cross protection during reinfection in House Finches. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 75:480-485.
31. FARFÁN-ALE, J. A., B. J. BLITVICH, N. L. MARLENEE, M. A. LOROÑO-PINO, F. PUERTO-MANZANO, J. E. GARCÍA- REJÓN, E. P. ROSADO-PAREDES, L. F. FLORES-FLORES, A. ORTEGA-SALAZAR, J. CHAVEZ-MEDINA, AND OTHERS. 2006. Antibodies to West Nile virus in asymptomatic mammals, birds, and reptiles in the Yucatan Peninsula of Mexico. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 74:908-914.
32. FONSECA, D. M., N. KEYGHOBADI, C. A. MALCOLM, C. MEHMET, F. SCHAFFNER, M. MOGI, R. C. FLEISCHER, AND R. C. WILKERSON. 2004. Emerging vectors in the Culex pipiens complex. Science 303:1535-1538.
33. GIBBS, S. E. J., A. B. ALLISON, M. J. YABSLEY, D. G. MEAD, B. R. WILCOX, AND D. E. STALLKNECHT. 2006. West Nile virus antibodies in avian species of Georgia, USA: 2000-2004. Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases 6:57-72.
34. GRIFFING, S. M., A. M. KILPATRICK, L. CLARK, AND P. P. MARRA. 2007. Mosquito landing rates on nesting American Robins (Turdus migratorius). Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases 7:437-443.
35. GUPTILL, S. C., K. G. JULIAN, G. L. CAMPBELL, S. D. PRICE, AND A. A. MARFIN. 2003. Early-season avian deaths from West Nile virus as warnings of human infection. Emerging Infectious Diseases 9:483-484.
36. HALL, R. A., AND A. A. KHROMYKH. 2004. West Nile virus vaccines. Expert Opinion on Biological Therapy 4:1295-1305.
37. HAMMON, W., W. REEVES, AND M. GRAY. 1943. Mosquito vectors and inapparent animal reservoirs of St. Louis and western equine encephalitis viruses. American Journal of Public Health 33:201-207.
38. HASSAN, H. K., E. W. CUPP, G. E. HILL, C. R. KATHOLI, K. KLINGLER, AND T. R. UNNASCH. 2003. Avian host preference by vectors of eastern equine encephalomyelitis virus. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 69:641-647.
39. HAYES, C. 1989. West Nile fever. Pages 59-88 in The Arboviruses: Epidemiology and Ecology, vol. 5 (T. P. Monath, Ed.). CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida.
40. HAYES, E. B., N. KOMAR, R. S. NASCI, S. P. MONTGOMERY, D. R. O'LEARY, AND G. L. CAMPBELL. 2005. Epidemiology and transmission dynamics of West Nile virus disease. Emerging Infectious Diseases 11:1167-1173.
41. HEALTH CANADA. 2007. West Nile virus. [Online.] Available at www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/wnv-vwn/index.htm.
42. HIGGS, S., B. S. SCHNEIDER, D. L. V ANLANDINGHAM, K. A. KLINGLER, AND E. A. GOULD. 2005. Nonviremic transmission of West Nile virus. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 102:8871-8874.
43. HOCHACHKA, W. M., A. A. DHONDT, K. J. MCGOWAN, AND L. D. KRAMER. 2004. Impact of West Nile virus on American Crows in the northeastern United States, and its relevance to existing monitoring programs. Ecohealth 1:60-68.
44. HUTCHESON, H. J., C. H. GORHAM, C. MACHAIN- WILLIAMS, M. A. LORONO-PINO, A. M. JAMES, N. L. MARLENEE, B. WINN, B. J. BEATY, AND C. D. BLAIR. 2005, Experimental transmission of West Nile virus (Flaviviridae: Flavivirus) by Carios capensis ticks from North America. Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases 5:293-295.
45. KILPATRICK, A. M. 2006. Facilitating the evolution of resistance to avian malaria in Hawaiian birds. Biological Conservation 128:475-485.
46. KILPATRICK, A. M., A. A. CHMURA, D. W. GIBBONS, R. C. FLEISCHER, P. P. MARRA, AND P. DASZAK. 2006a. Predicting the global spread of H5N1 avian influenza. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 103:19368-19373.
47. KILPATRICK, A. M., P. DASZAK, S. J. GOODMAN, H. ROGG, L. D. KRAMER, V. CEDEÑO, AND A. A. CUNNINGHAM. 2006b. Predicting pathogen introduction: West Nile virus spread to Galapagos. Conservation Biology 20:1224-1231.
48. KILPATRICK, A. M., P. DASZAK, M. J. JONES, P. P. MARRA, AND L. D. KRAMER. 2006C. Host heterogeneity dominates West Nile virus transmission. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series B 273:2327-2333.
49. KILPATRICK, A. M., Y. GLUZBERG, J. BURGETT, AND P. DASZAK. 2004. Quantitative risk assessment of the pathways by which West Nile virus could reach Hawaii. Ecohealth 1:205-209.
50. KILPATRICK, A. M., L. D. KRAMER, M. J. JONES, P. P. MARRA, P. DASZAK, AND D. M. FONSECA. 2007. Genetic influences on mosquito feeding behavior and the emergence of zoonotic pathogens. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 77:667-671.
51. KILPATRICK, A. M., L. D. KRAMER, S. R. CAMPBELL, E. O. ALLEYNE, A. P. DOBSON, AND P. DASZAK. 2005. West Nile virus risk assessment and the bridge vector paradigm. Emerging Infectious Diseases 11:425-429.
52. KILPATRICK, A. M., L. D. KRAMER, M. J. JONES, P. P. MARRA, AND P. DASZAK. 2006d. West Nile virus epidemics in North America are driven by shifts in mosquito feeding behavior. PLOS Biology 4:606-610.
53. KLENK, K., AND N. KOMAR. 2003. Poor replication of West Nile virus (New York 1999 strain) in three reptilian and one amphibian species. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 69:260-262.
54. KLENK, K., J. SNOW, K. MORGAN, R. BOWEN, M. STEPHENS, F. FOSTER, P. GORDY, S. BECKETT, N. KOMAR, D. GUBLER, AND M. BUNNING. 2004. Alligators as West Nile virus amplifiers. Emerging Infectious Diseases 10:2150-2155.
55. KOMAR, N. 2003. West Nile virus: Epidemiology and ecology in North America. Advances in Virus Research 61:185-234.
56. KOMAR, N., AND G. G. CLARK. 2006. West Nile virus activity in Latin America and the Caribbean. Revista Panamericana De Salud Publica/Pan American Journal of Public Health 19:112-117.
57. KOMAR, N., S. LANGEVIN, S. HINTEN, N. NEMETH, E. EDWARDS, D. HETTLER, B. DAVIS, R. BOWEN, AND M. BUNNING. 2003. Experimental infection of North American birds with the New York 1999 strain of West Nile virus. Emerging Infectious Diseases 9:311-322.
58. KOMAR, N., N. A. PANELLA, AND E. BOYCE. 2001. Exposure of domestic mammals to West Nile virus during an outbreak of human encephalitis, New York City, 1999. Emerging Infectious Diseases 7:736-738.
59. KOMAR, N., N. A. PANELLA, S. A. LANGEVIN, A. C. BRAULT, M. AMADOR, E. EDWARDS, AND J. C. OWEN. 2005. Avian hosts for West Nile virus in St. Tammany Parrish, Louisiana, 2002. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 73:1031-1037.
60. KRAMER, L. D., J. LI, AND P.-Y. SHI. 2007. West Nile virus. Lancet Neurology 6:171-181.
61. LADEAU, S. L., A. M. KILPATRICK, AND P. P. MARRA. 2007. West Nile virus emergence and large-scale declines of North American bird populations. Nature 447:710-713.
62. LANCIOTTI, R. S., J. T. ROEHRIG, V. DEUBEL, J. SMITH, M. PARKER, K. STEELE, B. CRISE, K. E. VOLPE, M. B. CRABTREE, J. H. SCHERRET, AND OTHERS. 1999. Origin of the West Nile virus responsible for an outbreak of encephalitis in the northeastern United States. Science 286:2333-2337.
63. LANGEVIN, S. A., A. C. BRAULT, N. A. PANELLA, R. A. BOWEN, AND N. KOMAR. 2005. Variation in virulence of West Nile virus strains for House Sparrows (Passer domesticus). American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 72:99-102.
64. LAWRIE, C. H., N. Y. UZCÁTEGUI, E. A. GOULD, AND P. A. NUTTALL. 2004. Ixodid and argasid tick species and West Nile virus. Emerging Infectious Diseases 10:653-657.
65. MAHMOOD, F., R. E. CHILES, Y. FANG, C. M. BARKER, AND W. K. REISEN. 2004. Role of nestling Mourning Doves and House Finches as amplifying hosts of St. Louis encephalitis virus. Journal of Medical Entomology 41:965-972.
66. MARRA, P. P., S. GRIFFING, C. CAFFREY, A. M. KILPATRICK, R. MCLEAN, C. BRAND, E. SAITO, A. P. DUPUIS, L. [D.] KRAMER, AND R. NOVAK. 2004. West Nile virus and wildlife. BioScience 54:393-402.
67. MATTAR, S., E. EDWARDS, J. LAGUADO, M. GONZÁLEZ, J. ALVAREZ, AND N. KOMAR. 2005. West Nile virus antibodies in Colombian horses. Emerging Infectious Diseases 11:1497-1498.
68. MOLAEI, G., T. G. ANDREADIS, P. M. ARMSTRONG, J. F. ANDERSON, AND C. VOSSBRINCK. 2006. Host feeding patterns of Culex mosquitoes and West Nile virus transmission, northeastern United States. Emerging Infectious Diseases 12:468-474.
69. MOLAEI, G., T. G. ANDREADIS, P. M. ARMSTRONG, R. BUENO, JR., J. A. DENNETT, S. V. REAL, C. SARGENT, A. BALA, Y. RANDLE, H. GUZMAN, AND OTHERS. 2007. Host feeding pattern of Culex quinque-fasciatus (Diptera: Culicidae) and its role in transmission of West Nile virus in Harris County, Texas. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 77:73-81.
70. MONATH, T. P., ED. 1980. St. Louis Encephalitis. American Public Health Association, Washington, D.C.
71. MORALES, M. A., M. BARRANDEGUY, C. FABBRI, J. B. GARCIA, A. VISSANI, K. TRONO, G. GUTIERREZ, S. PIGRETTI, H. MENCHACA, N. GARRIDO, AND OTHERS. 2006. West Nile virus isolation from equines in Argentina, 2006. Emerging Infectious Diseases 12:1559-1561.
72. MOUDY, R. M., M. A. MEOLA, L. L. MORIN, G. D. EBEL, AND L. D. KRAMER. 2007. A newly emergent genotype of West Nile virus is transmitted earlier and more efficiently by Culex mosquitoes. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 77:365-370.
73. NASCI, R. S., H. M. SAVAGE, D. J. WHITE, J. R. MILLER, B. C. CROPP, M. S. GODSEY, A. J. KERST, P. BENNETT, K. GOTTFRIED, AND R. S. LANCIOTTI. 2001. West Nile virus in over-wintering Culex mosquitoes, New York City, 2000. Emerging Infectious Diseases 7:742-744.
74. NASH, D., F. MOSTASHARI, A. FINE, J. MILLER, D. O'LEARY, K. MURRAY, A. HUANG, A. ROSENBERG, A. GREENBERG, M. SHERMAN, AND OTHERS. 2001. The outbreak of West Nile virus infection in the New York City area in 1999. New England Journal of Medicine 344:1807-1814.
75. NAUGLE, D. E., C. L. ALDRIDGE, B. L. WALKER, T. E. CORNISH, B. J. MOYNAHAN, M. J. HOLLORAN, K. BROWN, G. D. JOHNSON, E. T. SCHMIDTMANN, R. T. MAYER, AND OTHERS. 2004. West Nile virus: Pending crisis for Greater Sage-Grouse. Ecology Letters 7:704-713.
76. NEMETH, N., D. GOULD, R. BOWEN, AND N. KOMAR. 2006. Natural and experimental West Nile virus infection in five raptor species. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 42:1-13.
77. OSTFELD, R. S., AND F. KEESING. 2000. Biodiversity and disease risk: The case of Lyme disease. Conservation Biology 14:722-728.
78. OWEN, J., F. MOORE, N. PANELLA, E. EDWARDS, R. BRU, M. HUGHES, AND N. KOMAR. 2006. Migrating birds as dispersal vehicles for West Nile virus. Ecohealth 3:79-85.
79. PETERSEN, L. R., AND E. B. HAYES. 2004. Westward ho? - The spread of West Nile virus. New England Journal of Medicine 351:2257-2259.
80. PETERSON, A. T., D. A. VIEGLAIS, AND J. K. ANDREASEN. 2003. Migratory birds modeled as critical transport agents for West Nile Virus in North America. Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases 3:27-37.
81. PLATT, K. B., B. J. TUCKER, P. G. HALBUR, B. J. BLITVICH, F. G. FABIOSA, K. MULLIN, G. R. PARIKH, P. KITIKOON, L. C. BARTHOLOMAY, AND W. A. ROWLEY. 2008. Fox squirrels (Sciurus niger) develop West Nile virus viremias sufficient for infecting select mosquito species. Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases 8: in press.
82. PLATT, K. B., B. J. TUCKER, P. G. HALBUR, S. TIAWSIRISUP, B. J. BLITVICH, F. G. FABIOSA, L. C. BARTHOLOMAY, AND W. A. ROWLEY. 2007. West Nile virus viremia in eastern chipmunks (Tamias striatus) sufficient for infecting different mosquitoes. Emerging Infectious Diseases 13:831-837.
83. RAPPOLE, J. H., S. R. DERRICKSON, AND Z. HUBÁLEK. 2000. Migratory birds and spread of West Nile virus in the Western Hemisphere. Emerging Infectious Diseases 6:319-328.
84. REEVES, W. C. 1965. Ecology of mosquitoes in relation to arboviruses. Annual Review of Entomology 10:25-46.
85. REISEN, W. K., A. C. BRAULT, V. M. MARTINEZ, Y. FANG, K. SIMMONS, S. GARCIA, E. OMI-OLSEN, AND R. S. LANE. 2007a. Ability of transstadially infected Ixodes pacificus (Acari: Ixodidae) to transmit West Nile virus to Song Sparrows or western fence lizards. Journal of Medical Entomology 44:320-327.
86. REISEN, W. K., Y. FANG, AND V. MARTINEZ. 2007b. Is nonviremic transmission of West Nile virus by Culex mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) nonviremic? Journal of Medical Entomology 44:299-302.
87. REISEN, W. K., Y. FANG, AND V. M. MARTINEZ. 2005a. Avian host and mosquito (Diptera: Culicidae) vector competence determine the efficiency of West Nile and St. Louis encephalitis virus transmission. Journal of Medical Entomology 42:367-375.
88. REISEN, W. K., AND D. C. HAHN. 2007. Comparison of immune responses of Brown-headed Cowbird and related blackbirds to West Nile and other mosquito-borne encephalitis viruses. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 43:439-449.
89. REISEN, W. [K.], H. LOTHROP, R. CHILES, M. MADON, C. COSSEN, L. WOODS, S. HUSTED, V. KRAMER, AND J. EDMAN. 2004. West Nile virus in California. Emerging Infectious Diseases 10:1369-1378.
90. REISEN, W. K., V. M. MARTINEZ, Y. FANG, S. GARCIA, S. ASHTARI, S. S. WHEELER, AND B. D. CARROLL. 2006. Role of California (Callipepla californica) and Gambel's (Callipepla gambelii) quail in the ecology of mosquito-borne encephalitis viruses in California, USA. Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases 6:248-260.
91. REISEN, W. K., S. S. WHEELER, S. YAMAMOTO, Y. FANG, AND S. GARCIA. 2005b. Nesting ardeid colonies are not a focus of elevated West Nile virus activity in southern California. Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases 5:258-266.
92. RINGIA, A. M., B. J. BLITVICH, H.-Y. KOO, M. VAN DE WYNGAERDE, J. D. BRAWN, AND R. J. NOVAK. 2004. Antibody prevalence of West Nile Virus in birds, Illinois, 2002. Emerging Infectious Diseases 10:1120-1124.
93. ROOT, J. J., P. T. OESTERLE, N. M. NEMETH, K. KLENK, D. H. GOULD, R. G. MCLEAN, L. CLARK, AND J. S. HALL. 2006. Experimental infection of fox squirrels (Sciurus niger) with West Nile virus. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 75:697-701.
94. SARDELIS, M. R., M. J. TURELL, D. J. DOHM, AND M. L. O'GUINN. 2001. Vector competence of selected North American Culex and Coquillettidia mosquitoes for West Nile virus. Emerging Infectious Diseases 7:1018-1022.
95. SAVAGE, H. M., D. AGGARWAL, C. S. APPERSON, C. R. KATHOLI, E. GORDON, H. K. HASSAN, M. ANDERSON, D. CHARNETZKY, L. MCMILLEN, E. A. UNNASCH, AND OTHERS. 2007. Host choice and West Nile virus infection rates in blood fed mosquitoes, including members of the Culex pipiens complex, from Memphis and Shelby County, Tennessee 2002-2003. Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases 7:365-386.
96. SCOTT, T. W. 1988. Vertebrate host ecology. Pages 257-280 in Epidemiology of Arthropodborne Viral Diseases (T. P. Monath, Ed.). CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida.
97. STYER, L. M., K. A. BERNARD, AND L. D. KRAMER. 2006. Enhanced early West Nile virus infection in young chickens infected by mosquito bite: Effect of viral dose. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 75:337-345.
98. TEMPELIS, C. H. 1974. Host-feeding patterns of mosquitoes with a review of advances in analysis of blood meals by serology. Journal of Medical Entomology 11:635-653.
99. TEMPELIS, C. H., D. B. FRANCY, R. O. HAYES, AND M. F. LOFY. 1967. Variations in feeding patterns of seven culicine mosquitoes on vertebrate hosts in Weld and Larimer counties, Colorado. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 16:111-119.
100. TEMPELIS, C. H., W. C. REEVES, R. E. BELLAMY, AND M. F. LOFY. 1965. A three-year study of feeding habits of Culex tarsalis in Kern County California. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 14:170-177.
101. TESH, R. B., A. P. A. T. DA ROSA, H. GUZMAN, T. P. ARAUJO, AND S.-Y. XIAO. 2002. Immunization with heterologous flaviviruses protective against fatal West Nile encephalitis. Emerging Infectious Diseases 8:245-251.
102. THEOPHILIDES, C. N., S. C. AHEARN, S. GRADY, AND M. MERLINO. 2003. Identifying West Nile virus risk areas: The dynamic continuous-area space-time system. American Journal of Epidemiology 157:843-854.
103. TIAWSIRISUP, S., K. B. PLATT, R. B. EVANS, AND W. A. ROWLEY. 2005a. A comparision of West Nile virus transmission by Ochlerotatus trivittatus (COQ.), Culex pipiens (L.), and Aedes albopictus (Skuse). Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases 5:40-47.
104. TIAWSIRISUP, S., K. B. PLATT, B. J. TUCKER, AND W. A. ROWLEY. 2005b. Eastern cottontail rabbits (Sylvilagus floridanus) develop West Nile virus viremias sufficient for infecting select mosquito species. Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases 5:342-350.
105. TURELL, M. J., D. J. DOHM, M. R. SARDELIS, M. L. O'GUINN, T. G. ANDREADIS, AND J. A. BLOW. 2005. An update on the potential of North American mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) to transmit West Nile virus. Journal of Medical Entomology 42:57-62.
106. TURELL, M. J., M. [L.] O'GUINN, AND J. OLIVER. 2000. Potential for New York mosquitoes to transmit West Nile virus. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 62:413-414.
107. TURELL, M. J., M. R. SARDELIS, M. L. O'GUINN, AND D. J. DOHM. 2002. Potential vectors of West Nile virus in North America. Pages 241-252 in Japanese Encephalitis and West Nile Viruses (J. Mackenzie, A. Barrett, and V. Deubel, Eds.). Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
108. U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. 2007. West Nile virus maps. [Online.] U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey, Washington, D.C. Available at diseasemaps.usgs.gov/.
109. WEAVER, S. C., AND A. D. T. BARRETT. 2004. Transmission cycles, host range, evolution and emergence of arboviral disease. Nature Reviews Microbiology 2:789-801.
110. YAREMYCH, S. A., R. E. WARNER, P. C. MANKIN, J. D. BRAWN, A. RAIM, AND R. NOVAK. 2004. West Nile virus and high death rate in American Crows. Emerging Infectious Diseases 10:709-711.