Exclusion and inclusion criteria for people with aphasia in studies of depression after stroke: A systematic review and future recommendations

Neuroepidemiology

Volumn 29, Issue 1-2, 2007, Pages 1-17

  Townend, Ellen ^a,c   Brady, Marian ^a   McLaughlan, Kirsty ^b  

^a GLASGOW CALEDONIAN UNIVERSITY   (United Kingdom)

^b NHS GRAMPIAN   (United Kingdom)

^c ASTLEY AINSLIE HOSPITAL   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Aphasia; Aphasia screening, exclusion and inclusion criteria; Depression; Generalizability; Representativeness; Sample selection; Stroke

Indexed keywords

APHASIA; COMMUNITY HOSPITAL; DEPRESSION; HUMAN; REVIEW; SCREENING; STROKE; SYSTEMATIC REVIEW;

APHASIA; DEPRESSIVE DISORDER; EPIDEMIOLOGIC STUDIES; HUMANS; PATIENT SELECTION; STROKE;

EID: 35648941528     PISSN: 02515350     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1159/000108913     Document Type: Review

References (263)

1. Hackett ML, Yapa C, Parag V, Anderson CS: Frequency of depression after stroke: a systematic review of observational studies. Stroke 2005;36:1330-1340.
2. Andersen G: Post-stroke depression: diagnosis and incidence. Eur Psychiatry 1997;12(suppl 3):255s-260s.
3. Spencer KA, Tompkins CA, Schulz R: Assessment of depression in patients with brain pathology: the case of stroke. Psychol Bull 1997;122:132-152.
4. Kendell R, Jablensky A: Distinguishing between the validity and utility of psychiatric diagnoses. Am J Psychiatry 2003;160:4-12.
5. Davis GA: Survey of Adult Aphasia and Related Disorders, ed 2. London, Prentice-Hall, 1993.
6. Warlow CP, Sandercock P, Dennis M, Wardlaw J: Stroke: A Practical Guide to Management. Oxford, Blackwell Science, 2000.
7. Pedersen PM, Jorgensen HS, Nakayama H, Raaschou HO, Olsen TS: Aphasia in acute stroke: Incidence, determinants and recovery. Ann Neurol 1995;38:659-666.
8. Kauhanen ML, Korpelainen JT, Hiltunen P, et al: Aphasia, depression, and non-verbal cognitive impairment in ischaemic stroke. Cerebrovasc Dis 2000;10:455-461.
9. Wade DT, Hewer RL, David RM, Enderby P: Aphasia after stroke: natural history and associated deficits. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1986;49:11-16.
10. Parr S, Byng S, Gilpin S: Talking about Aphasia. Buckingham, Open University Press, 1997.
11. Hackett ML, Anderson CS: Predictors of depression after stroke: a systematic review of observational studies. Stroke 2005;36:2296-2301.
12. Hackett ML, Anderson CS, House AO: Interventions for treating depression after stroke. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2004;3:CD003437. DOI:10.1002/14651858. CD 003437.
13. Herrmann M, Bartels C, Wallesch CW: Depression in acute and chronic aphasia: symptoms, pathoanatomical-clinical correlations and functional implications. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1993;56:672-678.
14. MacHale SM, O'Rourke SJ, Wardlaw JM, Dennis MS: Depression and its relation to lesion location after stroke. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1998;64:371-374.
15. Singh A, Herrmann N, Black SE: The importance of lesion location in poststroke depression: a critical review. Can J Psychiatry 1998;43:921-927.
16. The dexamethasone suppression test for diagnosing depression in stroke patients (abstract 973035). Database of Abstracts of Reviews of Effects, http://www.york.ac.uk/inst/crd/crddatabases.htm (August 7, 2006). Ann Clin Psychiatry 1996;8:35-39.
17. Carson AJ, MacHale S, Allen K, et al: Depression after stroke and lesion location: a systematic review. Lancet 2000;356:122-126.
18. American Psychiatric Association: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders: DSM-IV. Washington, American Psychiatric Association, 1994.
19. Wing JK, Cooper JE, Sartorius N: The Measurement and Classification of Psychiatric Symptoms: An Instructional Manual for the PSE and CATEGO Programs. New York, Cambridge University Press, 1974.
20. Hamilton M: A rating scale for depression. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1960;23:56-62.
21. Yesavage JA, Brink T, Rose TL, et al: Development and validation of a geriatric depression screening scale: a preliminary report. J Psychiatr Res 1983;17:37-49.
22. De Renzi E, Vignolo LA: The Token Test: a sensitive test to detect receptive disturbances in aphasics. Brain 1962;85:665-678.
23. Goodglass H, Kaplan E: Boston Diagnostic Aphasia Examination. Philadelphia, Lea & Febiger, 1972.
24. The National Institute of Health led by Brott T: National Institute of Health Stroke Severity Scale, 1989; in Wade DT (ed): Measurement in Neurological Rehabilitation. New York, Oxford University Press, 1992, pp 293-296.
25. Robinson RG, Lipsey JR, Rao K, Price TR: Two-year longitudinal study of post-stroke mood disorders: comparison of acute-onset with delayed-onset depression. Am J Psychiatry 1986;143:1238-1244.
26. Starkstein SE, Robinson RG, Honig MA, Parikh RM, Joselyn J, Price TR: Mood changes after right-hemisphere lesions. Br J Psychiatry 1989;155:79-85.
27. Bosworth HB, Horner RD, Edwards LJ, Matchar DB: Depression and other determinants of values placed on current health state by stroke patients: evidence from the VA Acute Stroke (VASt) study. Stroke 2000;31:2603-2609.
28. Fruehwald S, Gatterbauer E, Rehak P, Baumhackl U: Early fluoxetine treatment of post-stroke depression - A three-month doubleblind placebo-controlled study with an open-label long-term follow-up. J Neurol 2003;250:347-351.
29. Gordon WA, Hibbard MR, Egelko S, Riley E, et al: Issues in the diagnosis of post-stroke depression. Rehab Psychol 1991;36:71-87.
30. Lincoln NB, Nicholl CR, Flannaghan T, Leonard M, Van der Gucht E: The validity of questionnaire measures for assessing depression after stroke. Clin Rehabil 2003;17:840-846.
31. Olive BR: Treatment Efficacy of a Brief Cognitive-Behavioral Intervention in Patients with Post-Stroke Depression; PhD thesis, University of Mississippi, 2000, p 205.
32. Robinson RG, Benson DF: Depression in aphasic patients: frequency, severity, and clinical-pathological correlations. Brain Lang 1981;14:282-291.
33. Kotila M, Waltimo O, Niemi ML, Laaksonen R, Lempinen M: The profile of recovery from stroke and factors influencing outcome. Stroke 1984;15:1039-1044.
34. Kertesz A: The Western Aphasia Battery. New York, Grune & Stratton, 1982.
35. Roberts P, Code C, McNeill MR: Describing participants in aphasia research. 1. Audit of current practice. Aphasiology 2003;17:911-932.
36. Enderby P, Wood V, Wade D, Wade D, Langton Hewer R: The Frenchay Aphasia Screening Test: a short, simple test for aphasia appropriate for non-specialists. Int Rehabil Med 1987;8:166-170.
37. Salter K, Jutai J, Foley N, Hellings C, Teasell R: Identification of aphasia post stroke: a review of screening assessment tools. Brain Inj 2006;20:559-568.
38. Albert ML, Obler LK, Goodglass H, Helm NA, Rubens A, Alexander MP: Clinical Aspects of Dysphasia. New York, Springer, 1981.
39. Prins RS, Snow CE, Wagenaar E: Recovery from aphasia: spontaneous speech versus language comprehension. Brain Lang 1978;6:192-211.
40. Spreen O, Risser AH: Assessment of Aphasia. New York, Oxford University Press, 2003.
41. Brady M, Armstrong L, Mackenzie C: An examination over time of language and discourse production abilities following right hemisphere brain damage. J Neuroling 2006;19:291-310.
42. Mackenzie C, Brady M, Norrie J, Pojedjenko N: Picture description in neurologically normal adults: concepts and topic coherence. Aphasiology 2007;21:340-354 .
43. Bhogal SK, Teasell R, Foley N, Speechley M: Lesion location and poststroke depression: systematic review of the methodological limitations in the literature. Stroke 2004;35:794-802.
44. Pocock SJ, Collier TJ, Dandreo KJ, et al: Issues in the reporting of epidemiological studies: a survey of recent practice. BMJ 2004;329:883-887.
45. Benaim C, Cailly B, Perennou D, Pelissier J: Validation of the aphasic depression rating scale. Stroke 2004;35:1692-1696.
46. Kelly-Hayes M, Robertson JT, Broderick JP, et al: The American Heart Association Stroke Outcome Classification. Stroke 1998;29:1274-1280.
47. Pluck GC, Brown RG: Apathy in Parkinson's disease. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2002;73:636-642.
48. Reding MJ, Orto LA, Winter SW, Fortuna IM, Di Ponte P, McDowell FH: Antidepressant therapy after stroke: a double-blind trial. Arch Neurol 1986;43:763-765.
49. Lim ML, Ebrahim SB: Depression after stroke: a hospital treatment survey. Postgrad Med J 1983;59:489-491.
50. Tang WK, Ungvari GS, Chiu HF, Sze KH, Woo J, Kay R: Psychiatric morbidity in first time stroke patients in Hong Kong: a pilot study in a rehabilitation unit. Aust NZ J Psychiatry 2002;36:544-549.
51. Aben I, Verhey F, Lousberg R, Lodder J, Honig A: Validity of the Beck depression inventory, hospital anxiety and depression scale, SCL-90, and Hamilton depression rating scale as screening instruments for depression in stroke patients. Psychosomatics 2002;43:386-393.
52. Aben I, Verhey F, Strik J, Lousberg R, Lodder J, Honig A: A comparative study into the one year cumulative incidence of depression after stroke and myocardial infarction. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2003;74:581-585.
53. Aben I, Denollet J, Lousberg R, Verhey F, Wojciechowski F, Honig A: Personality and vulnerability to depression in stroke patients: a 1-year prospective follow-up study. Stroke 2002;33:2391-2395.
54. de Coster L, Leentjens AF, Lodder J, Verhey FR: The sensitivity of somatic symptoms in post-stroke depression: a discriminant analytic approach. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 2005;20:358-362.
55. Agrell B, Dehlin O: Comparison of six depression rating scales in geriatric stroke patients. Stroke 1989;20:1190-1194.
56. Andersen G, Vestergaard K, Riis J, Lauritzen L: Incidence of post-stroke depression during the first year in a large unselected stroke population determined using a valid standardized rating scale. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1994;90:190-195.
57. Andersen G, Vestergaard K, Ingeman-Nielsen M, Jensen TS: Incidence of central post-stroke pain. Pain 1995;61:187-193.
58. Andersen G, Vestergaard K, Riis JO, Ingeman-Nielsen M: Dementia of depression or depression of dementia in stroke? Acta Psychiatr Scand 1996;94:272-278.
59. Andersen G, Vestergaard K, Ingemann-Nielsen M, Lauritzen L: Risk factors for post-stroke depression. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1995;92:193-198.
60. Andersen G, Vestergaard K, Ingeman-Nielsen M: Post-stroke pathological crying: frequency and correlation to depression. Eur J Neurol 1995;2:45-50.
61. Andersen G, Vestergaard K, Lauritzen L: Effective treatment of poststroke depression with the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor citalopram. Stroke 1994;25:1099-1104.
62. Andersson S, Krogstad JM, Finset A: Apathy and depressed mood in acquired brain damage: relationship to lesion localization and psychophysiological reactivity. Psychol Med 1999;29:447-456.
63. Aoki T, Hosaka T, Ishida A: Psychiatric evaluation of physical rehabilitation patients. Gen Hosp Psychiatry 1995;17:440-443.
64. Astrom M, Adolfsson R, Asplund K: Major depression in stroke patients: a 3-year longitudinal study. Stroke 1993;24:976-982.
65. Astrom M, Olsson T, Asplund K: Different linkage of depression to hypercortisolism early versus late after stroke: a 3-year longitudinal study. Stroke 1993;24:52-57.
66. Astrom M, Asplund K, Astrom T: Psychosocial function and life satisfaction after stroke. Stroke 1992;23:527-531.
67. Olsson T, Astrom M, Eriksson S, Forssell A: Hypercortisolism revealed by the dexamethasone suppression test in patients (corrected) with acute ischemic stroke. Stroke 1989;20:1685-1690 (erratum appears in Stroke 1990;21:681).
68. Bacher Y, Korner-Bitensky N, Mayo N, Becker R, Coopersmith H: A longitudinal study of depression among stroke patients participating in a rehabilitation program. Can J Rehabil 1990;4:27-37.
69. 2-Adrenergic receptor function in post-stroke depression. Psychol Med 1990;20:305-309.
70. Barry S, Phillips OM, Williams DC, Dinan TG: Platelet 5-HT uptake in post-stroke depression. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1990;82:88-89.
71. Bauer M, Gans JS, Harley JP, Cobb W: Dexamethasone suppression test and depression in a rehabilitation setting. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1983;64:421-422.
72. Beblo T, Wallesch C-W, Herrmann M: The crucial role of frontostriatal circuits for depressive disorders in the postacute stage after stroke. Neuropsychiatry Neuropsychol Behav Neurol 1999;12:36-46.
73. Beblo T, Driessen M: No melancholia in poststroke depression? A phenomenologic comparison of primary and poststroke depression. J Geriatr Psychiatry Neurol 2002;15:44-49.
74. Beekman AT, Penninx BW, Deeg DJ, et al: Depression in survivor of stroke: a community-based study of prevalence, risk factors and consequences. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 1998;33:463-470.
75. Bendsen BB, Bendsen EB, Lauritzen L, Vilmar T, Bech P: Post-stroke patients in rehabilitation: the relationship between biological impairment (CT scanning), physical disability and clinical depression. Eur Psychiatry 1997;12:399-404.
76. Lauritzen L, Bendsen BB, Vilmar T, Bendsen EB, Lunde M, Bech P: Post-stroke depression: combined treatment with imipramine or desipramine and mianserin: a controlled clinical study. Psychopharmacology 1994;114:119-122.
77. Berg A, Palomaki H, Lehtihalmes M, Lonnqvist J, Kaste M: Poststroke depression: an 18-month follow-up. Stroke 2003;34:138-143.
78. Palomaki H, Kaste M, Berg A, et al: Prevention of poststroke depression: 1-year randomised placebo-controlled double-blind trial of mianserin with 6-month follow-up after therapy. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1999;66:490-494.
79. Bozikas VP, Gold G, Kovari E, et al: Pathological correlates of poststroke depression in elderly patients. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 2005;13:166-169.
80. Wade DT, Legh-Smith J, Hewer RA: Depressed mood after stroke: a community study of its frequency. Br J Psychiatry 1987;151:200-205.
81. Bryer JB, Starkstein SE, Votypka V, Parikh RM, Price TR, Robinson RG: Reduction of CSF monoamine metabolites in poststroke depression: a preliminary report. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 1992;4:440-442.
82. Bush BA: Major life events as risk factors for post-stroke depression. Brain Inj 1999;13:131-137.
83. Carlsson GE, Moller A, Blomstrand C: Consequences of mild stroke in persons <75 years - A 1-year follow-up. Cerebrovasc Dis 2003;16:383-388.
84. Carod-Artal J, Egido JA, Gonzalez JL, Varela de Seijas E: Quality of life among stroke survivors evaluated 1 year after stroke: experience of a stroke unit. Stroke 2000;31:2995-3000.
85. Cassidy E, O'Connor R, O'Keane V: Prevalence of post-stroke depression in an Irish sample and its relationship with disability and outcome following inpatient rehabilitation. Disabil Rehabil 2004;26:71-77.
86. Cassidy EM, Walsh MT, O'Connor R, et al: Platelet surface glycoprotein expression in post-stroke depression: a preliminary study. Psychiatry Res 2003;118:175-181.
87. Chen HJ: Impact of Home Health Care Services on Quality of Life of Elderly Stroke Survivors in Taiwan; PhD thesis, University of Pittsburgh, 1995, p 126.
88. Choi-Kwon S, Han SW, Kwon SU, Kim JS: Poststroke fatigue: characteristics and related factors. Cerebrovasc Dis 2005;19:84-90.
89. Clark SL, Stephens MAP: Stroke patients' well-being as a function of caregiving spouses' helpful and unhelpful actions. Personal Relationships 1996;3:171-184.
90. Collin SJ, Tinson D, Lincoln NB: Depression after stroke. Clin Rehabil 1987;1:27-32.
91. Towle D, Lincoln NB, Mayfield LM: Evaluation of social work on depression after stroke. Clin Rehabil 1989;3:89-96.
92. Towle D: Use of the 'extended activities of daily living scale' with depressed stroke patients. Int Dis Studies 1988;10:148-149.
93. Towle D, Lincoln NB, Mayfield LM: Service provision and functional independence in depressed stroke patients and the effect of social work intervention on these. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1989;52:519-522.
94. Creed A, Swanwick G, O'Neill D: Screening for poststroke depression in patients with acute stroke including those with communication disorders. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 2004;19:595-597.
95. Dam H, Pedersen HE, Ahlgren P: Depression among patients with stroke. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1989;80:118-124.
96. Dam H: Depression in stroke patients 7 years following stroke. Acta Psychiatr Scand 2001;103:287-293.
97. Dam H, Pedersen HE, Damkjaer M, Ahlgren P: Dexamethasone suppression test in depressive stroke patients. Acta Neurol Scand 1991;84:14-17.
98. Dam H, Pedersen HE, Dige-Petersen H, Ahlgren P: Neuroendocrine tests in depressive stroke patients. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 1994;18:1005-1013.
99. Desmond DW, Remien RH, Moroney JT, Stern Y, Sano M, Williams JB: Ischemic stroke and depression. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 2003;9:429-439.
100. Toso V, Gandolfo C, Paolucci S, et al: Post-stroke depression: research methodology of a large multicentre observational study (DESTRO). Neurol Sci 2004;25:138-144.
101. Diamond PT, Holroyd S, Macciocchi SN, Felsenthal G: Prevalence of depression and outcome on the geriatric rehabilitation unit. Am J Phys Med Rehabil 1995;74:214-217.
102. Eastwood MR, Rifat SL, Nobbs H, Ruderman J: Mood disorder following cerebrovascular accident. Br J Psychiatry 1989;154:195-200.
103. Finklestein S, Benowitz LI, Baldessarini RJ, et al: Mood, vegetative disturbance, and dexamethasone suppression test after stroke. Ann Neurol 1982;12:463-468.
104. Folstein MF, Maiberger R, McHugh PR: Mood disorder as a specific complication of stroke. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1977;40:1018-1020.
105. Fukunishi I, Aoki T, Hosaka T: Correlations for social support with depression in the chronic poststroke period. Percept Mot Skills 1997;85:811-818.
106. Gainotti G, Azzoni A, Gasparini F, Marra C, Razzano C: Relation of lesion location to verbal and nonverbal mood measures in stroke patients. Stroke 1997;28:2145-2149.
107. Gainotti G, Antonucci G, Marra C, Paolucci S: Relation between depression after stroke, antidepressant therapy, and functional recovery. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2001;71:258-261.
108. Gainotti G, Azzoni A, Lanzillotta M, Marra C, Razzano C: Some preliminary findings concerning a new scale for the assessment of depression and related symptoms in stroke patients. Ital J Neurol Sci 1995;16:439-451.
109. Gainotti G, Azzoni A, Marra C: Frequency, phenomenology and anatomical-clinical correlates of major post-stroke depression. Br J Psychiatry 1999;175:163-167.
110. Gainotti G, Azzoni A, Razzano C, Lanzillotta M, Marra C, Gasparini F: The Post-Stroke Depression Rating Scale: a test specifically devised to investigate affective disorders of stroke patients. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol 1997;19:340-356.
111. Giaquinto S, Buzzelli S, Di Francesco L, et al: On the prognosis of outcome after stroke. Acta Neurol Scand 1999;100:202-208.
112. Gillen R, Tennen H, McKee TE, Gernert-Dott P, Affleck G: Depressive symptoms and history of depression predict rehabilitation efficiency in stroke patients. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2001;82:1645-1649.
113. Gonzalez-Torrecillas JL, Mendlewicz J, Lobo A: Effects of early treatment of post-stroke depression on neuropsychological rehabilitation. Int Psychogeriatr 1995;7:547-560.
114. Gottlieb D, Salagnik I, Kipnis M, Brill S: Poststroke depression, first year post stroke, in middle band patients. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 2002;17:486-487.
115. Grober SE, Gordon WA, Sliwinski MJ, Hibbard MR, Aletta EG, Paddison PL: Utility of the dexamethasone suppression test in the diagnosis of poststroke depression. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1991;72:1076-1079.
116. Harney JH, Fulton C, Ross ED, Rush AJ: Dexamethasone suppression test and onset of poststroke depression in patients with ischemic infarction. J Clin Psychiatry 1993;54:343-348.
117. Hayee MA, Akhtar N, Haque A, Rabbani MG: Depression after stroke - Analysis of 297 stroke patients. Bangladesh Med Res Counc Bull 2001;27:96-102.
118. Herrmann N, Black SE, Lawrence J, Szekely C, Szalai JP: The Sunnybrook Stroke Study: a prospective study of depressive symptoms and functional outcome. Stroke 1998;29:618-624.
119. Herrmann M, Bartels C, Schumacher M, Wallesch CW: Poststroke depression: is there a pathoanatomic correlate for depression in the postacute stage of stroke? Stroke 1995;26:850-856.
120. Hosking SG, Marsh NV, Friedman PJ: Depression at 3 months poststroke in the elderly: predictors and indicators of prevalence. Aging Neuropsychol Cognition 2000;7:205-216.
121. House A, Knapp P, Bamford J, Vail A: Mortality at 12 and 24 months after stroke may be associated with depressive symptoms at 1 month. Stroke 2001;32:696-701.
122. Calvert T, Knapp P, House A: Psychological associations with emotionalism after stroke. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1998;65:928-929.
123. Iacoboni M, Padovani A, Di Piero V, Lenzi GL: Post-stroke depression: relationships with morphological damage and cognition over time. Ital J Neurol Sci 1995;16:209-216.
124. Jaracz K, Kozubski W: Quality of life in stroke patients. Acta Neurol Scand 2003;107:324-329.
125. Jonkman EJ, de Weerd AW, Vrijens NL: Quality of life after a first ischemic stroke: long-term developments and correlations with changes in neurological deficit, mood and cognitive impairment. Acta Neurol Scand 1998;98:169-175.
126. Jorge RE, Robinson RG, Tateno A, et al: Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation as treatment of poststroke depression: a preliminary study. Biol Psychiatry 2004;55:398-405.
127. Kauhanen M, Korpelainen JT, Hiltunen P, et al: Poststroke depression correlates with cognitive impairment and neurological deficits. Stroke 1999;30:1875-1880.
128. Kauhanen M, Korpelainen JT, Hiltunen P, Nieminen P, Sotaniemmi KA, Myllyla VV: Domains and determinants of quality of life after stroke caused by brain infarction. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2000;81:1541-1546.
129. 300 event-related potential in minor ischemic stroke. Acta Neurol Scand 2000;101:202-208.
130. Kellermann M, Fekete I, Gesztelyi R, et al: Screening for depressive symptoms in the acute phase of stroke. Gen Hosp Psychiatry 1999;21:116-121.
131. Kim JS, Choi-Kwon S: Poststroke depression and emotional incontinence: correlation with lesion location. Neurology 2004;54:1805-1810.
132. Choi-Kwon S, Kim HS, Kwon SU, Kim JS: Factors affecting the burden on caregivers of stroke survivors in South Korea. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2005;86:1043-1048.
133. Kimura M, Kanetani K, Imai R, Suzuki H, Isayama K, Endo S: Therapeutic effects of milnacipran, a serotonin and noradrenaline reuptake inhibitor, on post-stroke depression. Int Clin Psychopharmacol 2002;17:121-125.
134. King RB, Shade-Zeldow Y, Carlson CE, Feldman JL, Philip M: Adaptation to stroke: a longitudinal study of depressive symptoms, physical health, and coping process. Top Stroke Rehabil 2002;9:46-66.
135. Kotila M, Numminen H, Waltimo O, Kaste M: Depression after stroke: results of the FINNSTROKE Study. Stroke 1998;29:368-372.
136. Lazarus LW, Winemiller DR, Lingam VR, et al: Efficacy and side effects of methylphenidate for poststroke depression. J Clin Psychiatry 1992;53:447-449.
137. Carota A, Berney A, Aybek S, et al: A prospective study of predictors of poststroke depression. Neurology 2005;64:428-433.
138. Aybek S, Carota A, Ghika-Schmid F, et al: Emotional behavior in acute stroke: the Lausanne emotion in stroke study. Cogn Behav Neurol 2005;18:37-44.
139. Ghika-Schmid F, van Melle G, Guex P, Bogousslavsky J: Subjective experience and behavior in acute stroke: the Lausanne Emotion in Acute Stroke Study. Neurology 1999;52:22-28.
140. Carota A, Rossetti AO, Karapanayiotides T, Bogousslavsky J: Catastrophic reaction in acute stroke: a reflex behavior in aphasic patients. Neurology 2001;57:1902-1905.
141. Leeds L, Meara RJ, Hobson JP: The utility of the Stroke Aphasia Depression Questionnaire (SADQ) in a stroke rehabilitation unit. Clin Rehabil 2004;18:228-231.
142. Li SC, Wang KY, Lin JC: Depression and related factors in elderly patients with occlusion stroke. J Nurs Res 2003;11:9-18.
143. Lincoln NB, Flannaghan T, Sutcliffe L, Rother L: Evaluation of cognitive behavioural treatment for depression after stroke: a pilot study. Clin Rehabil 1997;11:114-122.
144. Lincoln NB, Flannaghan T: Cognitive behavioral psychotherapy for depression following stroke: a randomized controlled trial. Stroke 2003;34:111-115.
145. Lipsey JR, Robinson RG, Pearlson GD, Rao K, Price TR: The dexamethasone suppression test and mood following stroke. Am J Psychiatry 1985;142:318-323.
146. Lipsey JR, Robinson RG, Pearlson GD, Rao K, Price TR: Nortriptyline treatment of post-stroke depression: a double-blind study. Lancet 1984;1:297-300.
147. Lipsey JR, Spencer WC, Rabins PV, Robinson RG: Phenomenological comparison of poststroke depression and functional depression. Am J Psychiatry 1986;143:527-529.
148. Lofgren B, Gustafson Y, Nyberg L: Psychological well-being 3 years after severe stroke. Stroke 1999;30:567-572.
149. Loong CK, Kenneth NK, Paulin ST: Post-stroke depression: outcome following rehabilitation. Aust NZ J Psychiatry 1995;29:609-614.
150. Ng KC, Chan KL, Straughan PT: A study of post-stroke depression in a rehabilitative center. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1995;92:75-79.
151. O'Rourke S, MacHale S, Signorini D, Dennis M: Detecting psychiatric morbidity after stroke: comparison of the GHQ and the HAD Scale. Stroke 1998;29:980-985.
152. Malec JF, Richardson JW, Sinaki M, O'Brien MW: Types of affective response to stroke. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1990;71:279-284.
153. Mast BT, MacNeill SE, Lichtenberg PA: Post-stroke and clinically defined vascular depression in geriatric rehabilitation patients. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 2004;12:84-92.
154. Miyai I, Reding MJ: Effects of antidepressants on functional recovery following stroke: a double-blind study. J Neurol Rehabil 1998;12:5-13.
155. Morris P, Hopwood M, Maguire K, Norman T, Schweitzer I: Blunted prolactin response to D-fenfluramine in post-stroke major depression. J Affect Disord 2003;76:273-278.
156. Morris PL, Robinson RG, Raphael B, Hopwood MJ: Lesion location and poststroke depression. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 1996;8:399-403.
157. Morris PL, Robinson RG, Raphael B: Prevalence and course of depressive disorders in hospitalized stroke patients. Int J Psychiatry Med 1990;20:349-364.
158. Morris PL, Robinson RG: Personality neuroticism and depression after stroke. Int J Psychiatry Med 1995;25:93-102.
159. Morris PL, Robinson RG, Samuels J: Depression, introversion and mortality following stroke. Aust NZ J Psychiatry 1993;27:443-449.
160. Morris PL, Shields RB, Hopwood MJ, Robinson RG, Raphael B: Are there two depressive syndromes after stroke? J Nerv Ment Dis 1994;182:230-234.
161. Morris PL, Robinson RG, Raphael B, Samuels J, Molloy P: The relationship between risk factors for affective disorder and post-stroke depression in hospitalised stroke patients. Aust NZ J Psychiatry 1992;26:208-217.
162. Morris PL, Robinson RG, Raphael B, Bishop D: The relationship between the perception of social support and post-stroke depression in hospitalized patients. Psychiatry 1991;54:306-316.
163. Morris PL, Robinson RG, Raphael B: Emotional lability after stroke. Aust NZ J Psychiatry 1993;27:601-605.
164. Morris PL, Raphael B, Robinson RG: Clinical depression is associated with impaired recovery from stroke. Med J Aust 1992;157:239-242.
165. Murray V, von Arbin M, Bartfai A, et al: Double-blind comparison of sertraline and placebo in stroke patients with minor depression and less severe major depression. J Clin Psychiatry 2005;66:708-716.
166. Naarding P, Leentjens AF, van Kooten F, Verhey FR: Disease-specific properties of the Rating Scale for Depression in patients with stroke, Alzheimer's dementia, and Parkinson's disease. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 2002;14:329-334.
167. Naess H, Nyland HI, Thomassen L, Aarseth J, Myhr KM: Fatigue at long-term follow-up in young adults with cerebral infarction. Cerebrovasc Dis 2005;20:245-250.
168. Naess H, Nyland HI, Thomassen L, Aarseth J, Myhr KM: Mild depression in young adults with cerebral infarction at long-term follow-up: a population-based study. Eur J Neurol 2005;12:194-198.
169. Nannetti L, Paci M, Pasquini J, Lombardi B, Taiti PG: Motor and functional recovery in patients with post-stroke depression. Disabil Rehabil 2005;27:170-175.
170. Neau JP, Ingrand P, Mouille-Brachet C, et al: Functional recovery and social outcome after cerebral infarction in young adults. Cerebrovasc Dis 1998;8:296-302.
171. Nicholl CR, Lincoln NB, Muncaster K, Thomas S: Cognitions and post-stroke depression. Br J Clin Psychol 2002;41:221-231.
172. Niedermaier N, Bohrer E, Schulte K, Schlattmann P, Heuser I: Prevention and treatment of poststroke depression with mirtazapine in patients with acute stroke. J Clin Psychiatry 2004;65:1619-1623.
173. Nys GM, van Zandvoort MJ, van der Worp HB, de Haan EH, de Kort PL, Kappelle LJ: Early depressive symptoms after stroke: neuropsychological correlates and lesion characteristics. Journal Neurol Sci 2005;228:27-33.
174. House A, Dennis M, Warlow C, Hawton K, Molyneux A: Mood disorders after stroke and their relation to lesion location. A CT scan study. Brain 1990;113:1113-1129.
175. House A, Dennis M, Warlow C, Hawton K, Molyneux A: The relationship between intellectual impairment and mood disorder in the first year after stroke. Psychol Med 1990;20:805-814.
176. House A, Dennis M, Molyneux A, Warlow C, Hawton K: Emotionalism after stroke. BMJ 1989;298:991-994.
177. House A, Dennis M, Hawton K, Warlow C: Methods of identifying mood disorders in stroke patients: experience in the Oxfordshire Community Stroke Project. Age Ageing 1989;18:371-379.
178. Sharpe M, Hawton K, House A, et al: Mood disorders in long-term survivors of stroke: associations with brain lesion location and volume. Psychol Med 1990;20:815-828.
179. Sharpe M, Hawton K, Seagroatt V, et al: Depressive disorders in long-term survivors of stroke: associations with demographic and social factors, functional status, and brain lesion volume. Br J Psychiatry 1994;164:380-386.
180. Appelros P, Viitanen M: Prevalence and predictors of depression at one year in a Swedish population-based cohort with first-ever stroke. J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis 2004;13:52-57.
181. Paolucci S, Antonucci G, Pratesi L, Traballesi M, Grasso MG, Lubich S: Poststroke depression and its role in rehabilitation of inpatients. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1999;80:985-990.
182. Paolucci S, Antonucci G, Grasso MG, et al: Post-stroke depression, antidepressant treatment and rehabilitation results: a case-control study. Cerebrovasc Dis 2001;12:264-271.
183. Burvill PW, Johnson GA, Jamrozik KD, Anderson CS, Stewart-Wynne EG, Chakera TM: Prevalence of depression after stroke: the Perth Community Stroke Study. Br J Psychiatry 1995;166:320-327.
184. Burvill P, Johnson G, Jamrozik K, Anderson C, Stewart-Wynne E: Risk factors for post-stroke depression. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 1997;12:219-226.
185. Johnson G, Burvill PW, Anderson CS, Jamrozik K, Stewart-Wynne EG, Chakera TM: Screening instruments for depression and anxiety following stroke: experience in the Perth community stroke study. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1995;91:252-257.
186. Pohjasvaara T, Leppavuori A, Siira I, Vataja R, Kaste M, Erkinjuntti T: Frequency and clinical determinants of poststroke depression. Stroke 1998;29:2311-2317.
187. Vataja R, Pohjasvaara T, Leppavuori A, et al: Magnetic resonance imaging correlates of depression after ischemic stroke. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2001;58:925-931.
188. Pohjasvaara T, Leskela M, Vataja R, et al: Post-stroke depression, executive dysfunction and functional outcome. Eur J Neurol 2002;9:269-275.
189. Pohjasvaara T, Vataja R, Leppaevuori A, Kaste M, Erkinjuntti T: Depression is an independent predictor of poor long-term functional outcome post-stroke. Eur J Neurol 2001;8:315-319.
190. Vataja R, Leppavuori A, Pohjasvaara T, et al: Poststroke depression and lesion location revisited. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 2004;16:156-162.
191. Vataja R, Pohjasvaara T, Mantyla R, et al: Depression-executive dysfunction syndrome in stroke patients. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 2005;13:99-107.
192. Ramasubbu R, Flint A, Brown G, Awad G, Kennedy S: A neuroendocrine study of serotonin function in depressed stroke patients compared to nondepressed stroke patients and healthy controls. J Affect Dis 1999;52:121-133.
193. Rampello L, Chiechio S, Nicoletti G, et al: Prediction of the response to citalopram and reboxetine in post-stroke depressed patients. Psychopharmacology 2004;173:73-78.
194. Rampello L, Alvano A, Chiechio S, Raffaele R, Vecchio I, Malaguarnera M: An evaluation of efficacy and safety of reboxetine in elderly patients affected by 'retarded' poststroke depression: a random, placebo-controlled study. Arch Gerontol Geriatr 2005;40:275-285.
195. Rasmussen A, Lunde M, Poulsen DL, Sorensen K, Qvitzau S, Bech P: A double-blind, placebo-controlled study of sertraline in the prevention of depression in stroke patients. Psychosomatics 2003;44:216-221 (erratum appears in Psychosomatics 2004;45:91).
196. Rao R, Jackson S, Howard R: Primitive reflexes in cerebrovascular disease: a community study of older people with stroke and carotid stenosis. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 1999;14:964-972.
197. Rao R, Jackson S, Howard R: Depression in older people with mild stroke, carotid stenosis and peripheral vascular disease: a comparison with healthy controls. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 2001;16:175-183.
198. Reding M, et al: The dexamethasone suppression test: an indicator of depression in stroke but not a predictor of rehabilitation outcome. Arch Neurol 1985;42:209-212.
199. Reding MJ, Gardner C, Hainline B, Devinsky O: Neuropsychiatric problems interfering with inpatient stroke rehabilitation. J Neurol Rehabil 1993;7:1-7.
200. Robinson RG, Szetela B: Mood change following left hemispheric brain injury. Ann Neurol 1981;9:447-453.
201. Robinson RG, Price TR: Post-stroke depressive disorders: a follow-up study of 103 patients. Stroke 1982;13:635-641.
202. Robinson RG, Schultz SK, Castillo C, et al: Nortriptyline versus fluoxetine in the treatment of depression and in short-term recovery after stroke: a placebo-controlled, double-blind study. Am J Psychiatry 2000;157:351-359.
203. Narushima K, Kosier JT, Robinson RG: Preventing poststroke depression: a 12-week double-blind randomized treatment trial and 21-month follow-up. J Nerv Ment Dis 2002;190:296-303.
204. Jorge RE, Robinson RG, Arndt S, Starkstein S: Mortality and poststroke depression: a placebo-controlled trial of antidepressants. Am J Psychiatry 2003;160:1823-1829.
205. Robinson RG, Starr LB, Kubos KL, Price TR: A two-year longitudinal study of post-stroke mood disorders: findings during the initial evaluation. Stroke 1983;14:736-741.
206. Starr LB, Robinson RG, Price TR: Reliability, validity, and clinical utility of the social functioning exam in the assessment of stroke patients. Exp Aging Res 1983;9:101-106.
207. Robinson RG, Starr LB, Lipsey JR, Rao K, Price TR: A two-year longitudinal study of post-stroke mood disorders: dynamic changes in associated variables over the first six months of follow-up. Stroke 1984;15:510-517.
208. Robinson RG, Starr LB, Lipsey JR, Rao K, Price TR: A two-year longitudinal study of poststroke mood disorders: in-hospital prognostic factors associated with six-month outcome. J Nerv Ment Dis 1985;173:221-226.
209. Parikh RM, Lipsey JR, Robinson RG, Price TR: Two-year longitudinal study of post-stroke mood disorders: dynamic changes in correlates of depression at one and two years. Stroke 1987;18:579-584.
210. Robinson RG, Starr LB, Price TR: A two-year longitudinal study of mood disorders following stroke: prevalence and duration at six months follow-up. Br J Psychiatry 1984;144:256-262.
211. Morris PL, Robinson RG, Andrzejewski P, Samuels J, Price TR: Association of depression with 10-year poststroke mortality. Am J Psychiatry 1993;150:124-129.
212. Robinson RG, et al: Mood changes in stroke patients: relationship to lesion location. Compr Psychiatry 1983;24:555-566.
213. Robinson RG, Bolduc PL, Kubos KL, Starr LB, Price TR: Social functioning assessment in stroke patients. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1985;66:496-500.
214. Robinson RG, Bolduc PL, Price TR: Two-year longitudinal study of poststroke mood disorders: diagnosis and outcome at one and two years. Stroke 1987;18:837-843.
215. Robinson RG, Bolla-Wilson K, Kaplan E, Lipsey JR, Price TR: Depression influences intellectual impairment in stroke patients. Br J Psychiatry 1986;148:541-547.
216. Robinson RG, Kubos KL, Starr LB, Rao K, Price TR: Mood disorders in stroke patients: importance of location of lesion. Brain 1984;107:81-93.
217. Robinson RG, Lipsey JR, Bolla-Wilson K, et al: Mood disorders in left-handed stroke patients. Am J Psychiatry 1985;142:1424-1429.
218. Robinson RG, Parikh RM, Lipsey JR, Starkstein SE, et al: Pathological laughing and crying following stroke: validation of a measurement scale and a double-blind treatment study. Am J Psychiatry 1993;150:286-293.
219. Rybarczyk B, Winemiller DR, Lazarus LW, Haut A, et al: Validation of a depression screening measure for stroke inpatients. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 1996;4:131-139.
220. Schramke CJ, Stowe RM, Ratcliff G, Goldstein G, Condray R: Poststroke depression and anxiety: different assessment methods result in variations in incidence and severity estimates. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol 1998;20:723-737.
221. Schubert DS, Taylor C, Lee S, Mentari A, Tamaklo W: Physical consequences of depression in the stroke patient. Gen Hosp Psychiatry 1992;14:69-76.
222. Schubert DS, Taylor C, Lee S, Mentari A, et al: Detection of depression in the stroke patient. Psychosom J Consult Liaison Psychiatry 1992;33:290-294.
223. Tamaklo W, Schubert DS, Mentari A, Lee S, et al: Assessing depression in the medical patient using the MADRS, a sensitive screening scale. Integr Psychiatry 1992;8:264-270.
224. Schwartz JA, Speed NM, Brunberg JA, Brewer TL, Brown M, Greden JF: Depression in stroke rehabilitation. Biol Psychiatry 1993;33:694-699.
225. Shaughnessy M: Trajectory of Functional Recovery over Twelve Months following Stroke; PhD thesis, University of Pennsylvania, 1996, p 91.
226. Evans GL, Whitney FW: The role of medical conditions and depression in the functional outcome of stroke survivors: a review and pilot study. Top Stroke Rehabil 1998;5:30-50.
227. Whitney FW, Burns EM, Frederic M, Lowery BJ: Depression in stroke survivors: the relationship of laterality in right and left hemisphere damage. Rehabil Nurs Res 1994;3:130-140.
228. Shima S, Kitagawa Y, Kitamura T, Fujinawa A, Watanabe Y: Poststroke depression. Gen Hosp Psychiatry 1994;16:286-289.
229. Sinyor D, Amato P, Kaloupek DG, Becker R, Goldenberg M, Coopersmith H: Post-stroke depression: relationships to functional impairment, coping strategies, and rehabilitation outcome. Stroke 1986;17:1102-1107.
230. Sinyor D, Jacques P, Kaloupek DG, Becker R, Goldenberg M, Coopersmith H: Post-stroke depression and lesion location: an attempted replication. Brain 1986;109:537-546.
231. Sorokina ND, Selitskii GV, Troshina AV: A psychophysiological study of affective disorders in patients during post-stroke rehabilitation. Hum Physiol 2004;30;166-171.
232. Spalletta G, Ripa A, Caltagirone C: Symptom profile of DSM-IV major and minor depressive disorders in first-ever stroke patients. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 2005;13:108-115.
233. Spalletta G, Guida G, De Angelis D, Caltagirone C: Predictors of cognitive level and depression severity are different in patients with left and right hemispheric stroke within the first year of illness. J Neurol 2002;249:1541-1551.
234. Spalletta G, Guida G, Caltagirone C: Is left stroke a risk-factor for selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor antidepressant treatment resistance? J Neurol 2003;250:449-455.
235. Spalletta G, Pasini A, Costa A, et al: Alexithymic features in stroke: effects of laterality and gender. Psychosom Med 2001;63:944-950.
236. Spalletta G, Caltagirone C: Sertraline treatment of post-stroke major depression: an open study in patients with moderate to severe symptoms. Funct Neurol 2003;18:227-232.
237. Fedoroff JP, Starkstein SE, Parikh RM, Price TR, Robinson RG: Are depressive symptoms nonspecific in patients with acute stroke? Am J Psychiatry 1991;148:1172-1176.
238. Starkstein SE, Robinson RG, Price TR: Comparison of cortical and subcortical lesions in the production of poststroke mood disorders. Brain 1987;110:1045-1059.
239. Starkstein SE, Robinson RG, Price TR: Comparison of patients with and without poststroke major depression matched for size and location of lesion. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1988;45:247-252.
240. Starkstein SE, Robinson RG, Price TR: Comparison of spontaneously recovered versus nonrecovered patients with post-stroke depression. Stroke 1988;19:1491-1496.
241. Starkstein SE, Fedoroff JP, Price TR, Leiguarda R, Robinson RG: Anosognosia in patients with cerebrovascular lesions: a study of causative factors. Stroke 1992;23:1446-1453.
242. Starkstein SE, Fedoroff JP, Price TR, Leiguarda R, Robinson RG: Apathy following cerebrovascular lesions. Stroke 1993;24:1625-1630.
243. Bolla-Wilson K, Robinson RG, Starkstein SE, Boston J, Price TR: Lateralization of dementia of depression in stroke patients. Am J Psychiatry 1989;146:627-634.
244. Parikh RM, Eden DT, Price TR, Robinson RG: The sensitivity and specificity of the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale in screening for post-stroke depression. Int J Psychiatry Med 1988;18:169-181.
245. Shinar D, Gross CR, Price TR, Banko M, Bolduc PL, Robinson RG: Screening for depression in stroke patients: the reliability and validity of the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale. Stroke 1986;17:241-245.
246. Stein PN, Sliwinski MJ, Gordon WA, Hibbard MR: Discriminative properties of somatic and nonsomatic symptoms for post-stroke depression. Clin Neuropsychol 1996;10:141-148.
247. Stone J, Townend E, Kwan J, Haga K, Dennis MS, Sharpe M: Personality change after stroke: some preliminary observations. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2004;75:1708-1713.
248. Suh M, Kim K, Kim I, Cho N, Choi H, Noh S: Caregiver's burden, depression and support as predictors of post-stroke depression: a cross-sectional survey. Int J Nurs Stud 2005;42:611-618.
249. Tang WK, Chan SS, Chiu HF, et al: Can the Geriatric Depression Scale detect post-stroke depression in Chinese elderly? J Affect Dis 2004;81:153-156.
250. Tang WK, Chan SS, Chiu HF, et al: Post-stroke depression in Chinese patients: frequency, psychosocial, clinical, and radiological determinants. J Geriatr Psychiatr Neurol 2005;18:45-51.
251. Tang WK, Ungvari GS, Chiu HF, Sze KH, Chan AS, Leung TL: Screening for post-stroke depression in a Hong Kong rehabilitation hospital: impact of different raters. J Nerv Ment Dis 2003;191:474-476.
252. Tang WK, Ungvari GS, Chiu HF, Sze KH, Yu AC, Leung TL: Screening post-stroke depression in Chinese older adults using the hospital anxiety and depression scale. Aging Ment Health 2004;8:397-399.
253. Tang WK, Ungvari GS, Chiu HF, Sze KH: Detecting depression in Chinese stroke patients: a pilot study comparing four screening instruments. Int J Psychiatry Med 2004;34:155-163.
254. van de Weg FB, Kuik DJ, Lankhorst GJ: Post-stroke depression and functional outcome: a cohort study investigating the influence of depression on functional recovery from stroke. Clin Rehabil 1999;13:268-272.
255. Verdelho A, Henon H, Lebert F, Pasquier F, Leys D: Depressive symptoms after stroke and relationship with dementia: a three-year follow-up study. Neurology 2004;62:905-911.
256. Watkins C, Daniels L, Jack C, Dickinson H, van den Broek M: Accuracy of a single question in screening for depression in a cohort of patients after stroke: comparative study. BMJ 2001;323:1159.
257. Weimar C, Kurth T, Kraywinkel K, et al: Assessment of functioning and disability after ischemic stroke. Stroke 2002;33:2053-2059.
258. Wiart L, Petit H, Joseph PA, Mazaux JM, Barat M: Fluoxetine in early poststroke depression: a double-blind placebo-controlled study. Stroke 2000;31:1829-1832.
259. Wilkinson PR, Wolfe CD, Warburton FG, et al: Longer term quality of life and outcome in stroke patients: is the Barthel index alone an adequate measure of outcome? Qual Health Care 1997;6:125-130.
260. Williams JM, Little MM, Klein K: Depression and hemispheric site of cerebral vascular accident. Arch Clin Neuropsychol 1986;1:393-398.
261. Williams LS, Weinberger M, Harris LE, Biller J: Measuring quality of life in a way that is meaningful to stroke patients. Neurology 1999;53:1839-1843.
262. Williams LS, Brizendine EJ, Plue L, et al: Performance of the PHQ-9 as a screening tool for depression after stroke. Stroke 2005;36:635-638.
263. Williams CL, et al: Qualitative and quantitative measurement of depression in veterans recovering from stroke. J Rehabil Res Dev 2005;42:277-290.