Sequence skill learning in persons who stutter: Implications for cortico-striato-thalamo-cortical dysfunction

Journal of Fluency Disorders

Volumn 32, Issue 4, 2007, Pages 251-278

  Smits Bandstra, Sarah ^a   De Nil, Luc F ^a,b,c  

^a UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO   (Canada)

^b UNIVERSITY HEALTH NETWORK   (Canada)

^c HOSPITAL FOR SICK CHILDREN RESEARCH INSTITUTE   (Canada)

Author keywords

Automaticity; Basal ganglia; Dual task; Finger tapping; Nonsense syllables; Practice; Sequencing; Skill learning; Stuttering

Indexed keywords

BASAL GANGLION; BRAIN CORTEX; BRAIN DYSFUNCTION; BRAIN FUNCTION; CEREBELLUM; COLOR DISCRIMINATION; CORPUS STRIATUM; HUMAN; LEARNING DISORDER; NEUROIMAGING; REVIEW; SKILL RETENTION; SPEECH ANALYSIS; STUTTERING; TASK PERFORMANCE; THALAMUS;

ADULT; AUTOMATISM; BASAL GANGLIA; CEREBRAL CORTEX; CORPUS STRIATUM; FINGERS; HUMANS; LEARNING; MALE; MOVEMENT; PERIODICITY; REACTION TIME; RETENTION (PSYCHOLOGY); SEVERITY OF ILLNESS INDEX; STUTTERING; THALAMUS;

EID: 35348960391     PISSN: 0094730X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.jfludis.2007.06.001     Document Type: Review

References (142)

1. Abwender D.A., Trinidad K.S., Jones K.R., Como P.G., Hymes E., and Kurlan R. Features resembling Tourette's syndrome in developmental stutterers. Brain and Language 62 (1998) 455-464
2. Ackermann H., Hertrich I., Zieglers W., Bitzer M., and Bien S. Acquired disfluencies following infarction of the left mesiofrontal cortex. Aphasiology 10 (1996) 409-417
3. Adams M.R., and Hayden P. The ability of stutterers and nonstutterers to initiate and terminate phonation during production of an isolated vowel. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research 19 (1976) 290-296
4. Alexander M., Naeser M., and Palumbo C. Correlations of subcortical CT lesion sites and aphasia profiles. Brain 110 (1987) 961-991
5. Alm P.A. Stuttering and the basal ganglia circuits: A critical review of possible relations. Journal of Communication Disorders 37 (2004) 325-369
6. Alsobrook J., and Pauls D. Molecular approaches to child psychopathology. Human Biology 70 (1998) 413-432
7. Anderson J.R. Acquisition of cognitive skill. Psychological Review 89 (1982) 369-406
8. Anderson J.A., and Conture E.G. Sentence-structure priming in young children who do and do not stutter. Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research 47 (2004) 552-571
9. Andy O., and Bhatnager S. Stuttering acquired from subcortical pathologies and its alleviation from thalamic perturbation. Brain and Language 42 (1992) 385-401
10. Archibald L., and De Nil L. The relationship between stuttering severity and kinesthetic acuity for jaw movements in adults who stutter. Journal of Fluency Disorders 24 (1999) 25-42
11. Baddeley A., Bueno O., Cahill L., Fuster J.M., Izquierdo I., Mcgaugh J.L., et al. The brain decade in debate. I: Neurobiology of learning and memory. Brazilian Journal of Medical and Biological Research 33 (2000) 993-1002
12. Beal, D., Gracco, V., Lafaille, S. & De Nil, L.F. (in press). Voxel-based morphometry of auditory and speech-related cortex of stutterers. NeuroReport.
13. Beilock S.L., Carr T.H., MacMahon C., and Starkes J.L. When paying attention becomes counterproductive: Impact of divided versus skill-focused attention on novice and experienced performance of sensorimotor skills. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied 8 (2002) 6-16
14. Benecke R., Rothwell J.C., Dick J., Day B., and Marsden C.D. Performance of simultaneous movements in patients with Parkinson's disease. Brain 109 (1986) 739-757
15. Berardelli A., Rothwell J.C., Thompson P.D., and Hallet M. Pathophysiology of bradykinesia in Parkinson's disease. Brain 124 (2001) 2131-2146
16. Berman Hakim H., and Bernstein Ratner N. Nonword repetition abilities of children who stutter: An exploratory study. Journal of Fluency Disorders 29 (2004) 179-199
17. Bernstein Ratner N. Stuttering: A psycholinguistic perspective. In: Curlee R.F., and Siegel G. (Eds). Nature and treatment of stuttering: New directions,. 2nd ed. (1997), Allyn & Bacon, Boston, MA 99-127
18. Bloodstein O. A Handbook of Stuttering. 4th ed. (1995), Easter Seals Society, Chicago, IL p. 190
19. Bosshardt H.G. Effects of concurrent mental calculation on stuttering, inhalation, and speech timing. Journal of Fluency Disorders 24 (1999) 43-72
20. Bosshardt H.G. Effects of concurrent cognitive processing on the fluency of word repetition: Comparison between persons who do and do not stutter. Journal of Fluency Disorders 27 (2002) 93-114
21. Braun A.R., Varga M., Stager S.V., Schulz G.M., Selbie S., Maisog J.M., et al. Altered patterns of cerebral activity during speech and language production in developmental stuttering: An H215O positron emission tomography study. Brain 120 (1997) 761-784
22. Brotchie P., Iansek R., and Horne M.K. Motor function of the monkey globus pallidus. II: Cognitive aspects of movement and phasic neural activity. Brain 114 (1991) 1685-1702
23. Brown R.G., Redondo-Verge L., Chacon J.R., Lucas M.L., and Channon S. Dissociation between intentional and incidental sequence learning in Huntington's disease. Brain 124 (2001) 2188-2202
24. Carluer L., Marie R.M., Lambert J., Defer G.L., Coskun O., and Rossa Y. Acquired and persistent stuttering as the main symptom of striatal infarction. Movement Disorders 15 (2000) 343-346
25. Catalan M.J., Ishii K., Honda M., Samii A., and Hallet M. A PET study of sequential finger movements of varying length in patients with Parkinson's disease. Brain 122 (1999) 483-495
26. Ciabarra A.M., Elkind M.S., Roberts J.K., and Marshall R.S. Subcortical infarction resulting in acquired stuttering. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry 69 (2000) 546-549
27. Cooper M.H., and Allen G.D. Timing control and accuracy in normal speakers and stutterers. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research 20 (1977) 55-71
28. Cross D.E., and Luper H.L. Voice reaction time of stuttering and nonstuttering children and adults. Journal of Fluency Disorders 4 (1979) 59-77
29. De Nil L.F., and Abbs J.H. Oral and finger kinesthetic thresholds in stutterers. In: Peters H.F.M., Hulstijn W., and Starkweather C.W. (Eds). Speech motor control and stuttering, (1991), Elsevier, New York, NY 123-130
30. De Nil L.F., and Bosshardt H.G. Studying stuttering from a neurological and cognitive information processing perspective. In: Bosshardt H.G., Yaruss J.S., and Peters H.F.M. (Eds). Fluency disorders: Theory, research, treatment, and self-help: Proceedings of the third world conference of fluency disorders (2001), Nijmegen University Press, Nijmegen, The Netherlands 53-58
31. De Nil L.F., Kroll R.M., and Houle S. Functional neuroimaging of cerebellar activation during single word reading and verb generation in stuttering and nonstuttering adults. Neuroscience Letters 302 (2001) 77-80
32. De Nil L.F., Kroll R.M., Kapur S., and Houle S. A positron emission tomography study of silent and oral single word reading in stuttering and nonstuttering adults. Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research 43 (2000) 1038-1053
33. De Nil L.F., Kroll R.M., Lafaille S.J., and Houle S. A positron emission tomography study of short- and long-treatment effects on functional brain activation in adults who stutter. Journal of Fluency Disorders 28 (2003) 357-380
34. Denny M., and Smith A. Gradations in a pattern of neuromuscular activity associated with stuttering. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research 35 (1992) 1216-1229
35. Dogil G., Ackermann H., Grodd W., Haider H., Kamp H., Mayer J., et al. The speaking brain: A tutorial introduction to fMRI experiments in the production of speech, prosody, and syntax. Journal of Neurolinguistics 15 (2002) 59-90
36. Dominey P.F., Ventre-Dominey J., Broussolle E., and Jeannerod M. Analogical transfer is effective in a serial reaction time task in Parkinson's disease; evidence for a dissociable form of sequence learning. Neuropsychologia 35 (1997) 1-9
37. Doyon J., Gaudreau D., Laforce Jr. R., Castonguay M., Bedard P.J., Bedard F., et al. Role of the striatum, cerebellum, and frontal lobes in the learning of a visuomotor sequence. Brain and Cognition 34 (1997) 218-245
38. Doyon J., Laforce R., Bouchard G., Gaudreau D., Roy J., Poirier M., et al. Role of the striatum, cerebellum, and frontal lobes in the automatization of a repeated visuomotor sequence of movements. Neuropsychologia 36 (1998) 625-641
39. Dujardin K., and Laurent B. Dysfunction of the human memory systems: role of the dopaminergic transmission. Current Opinion in Neurology 16 (2003) S11-S16
40. Evarts E., Shinoda Y., and Wise S. Neurophysiology approaches to higher brain function (1984), John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY pp. 7-39
41. Fattapposta F., Pierelli F., Travera G., My F., Mostarda M., Alessio C., et al. Preprogramming and control activity of bimanual self-paced motor task in Parkinson's disease. Clinical Neurophysiology 111 (2000) 873-883
42. Fiez J.A., Petersen S.E., Cheney M.K., and Raichle M.E. Impaired non-motor learning and error detection associated with cerebellar damage. Brain 115 (1992) 155-178
43. Fitts P.M. The information capacity of the human motor system in controlling the amplitude of movement. Journal of Experimental Psychology 47 (1954) 381-391
44. Fitzgerald H.E., Cooke P.A., and Greiner J.R. Speech and bimanual hand organization in adult stutterers and nonstutterers. Journal of Fluency Disorders 9 (1984) 51-65
45. Folion M., Tremblay L., and Bedard P.J. Abnormal influence of passive limb movement on the activity of globus pallidus neurons in Parkinsonian monkeys. Brain Research 444 (1988) 165-176
46. Forster D.C., and Webster W.G. Speech-motor control and interhemispheric relations in recovered and persistent stuttering. Developmental Neuropsychology 19 (2001) 125-145
47. Foundas A.L. Is language laterality established by 5 years of age?. Neurology 60 (2003) 1573-1574
48. Fox P.T., Ingham R.J., Ingham J.C., Hirsch T.B., Hunter Downs J., Martin C., et al. A PET study of the neural systems of stuttering. Nature 382 (1996) 158-162
49. Fox P.T., Ingham R.J., Ingham J.C., Zamarripa F., Xiong J.H., and Lancaster J.L. Brain correlates of stuttering and syllable production: A PET performance-correlation analysis. Brain 123 (2000) 1985-2004
50. Friston K.J., Frith C.D., Passingham R.E., Liddle P.F., and Frackowiak R.S.J. Motor practice and neurophysiological adaptation in the cerebellum: A positron tomography study. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London - Series B: Biological Sciences 248 (1992) 223-228
51. Frith C.D., Bloxham C.A., and Carpenter K.N. Impairments in the learning and performance of a new manual skill in patients with Parkinson's disease. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry 49 (1986) 661-668
52. Grafton S.T., Hazeltine E., and Ivry R.B. Motor sequence learning with the nondominant left hand: A PET functional imaging study. Experimental Brain Research 146 (2002) 369-378
53. Graybiel A.M. The basal ganglia and chunking of action repertoires. Neurobiology of Learning and Memory 70 (1998) 119-136
54. Greiner J.R., Fitzgerald H.E., and Cooke P.A. Speech fluency and hand performance on a sequential tapping task in left-and right-handed stutterers and nonstutterers. Journal of Fluency Disorders 11 (1986) 55-69
55. Guadagnoli M.A., Leis B., Van Gemmert A.W., and Stelmach G.E. The relationship between knowledge of results and motor learning in Parkinsonian patients. Parkinsonism and Related Disorders 9 (2002) 89-95
56. Harrington D.L., Haaland K.Y., Yeo R.A., and Marder E. Procedural memory in Parkinson's disease: Impaired motor but not visuoperceptual learning. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology 12 (1990) 323-339
57. Helmuth L.L., Mayr U., and Daum I. Sequence learning in Parkinson's disease: a comparison of spatial-attention and number-response sequences. Neuropsychologia 38 (2000) 1443-1451
58. Heuer R.J., Thayer Sataloff R., Mandel S., and Travers N. Neurogenic stuttering: Further corroboration of site of lesion. Ear, Nose, and Throat Journal 75 (1996) 161-168
59. Horska A., Kaufmann W., Brant L., Naidu S., Harris J., and Barker P. In vivo quantitative proton MRSI study of brain development from childhood to adolescence. Journal of Magnetic Resonance Imaging 15 (2002) 137-143
60. Houk J.C., Buckingham J.T., and Barto A.G. Models of the cerebellum and motor learning. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 19 (1996) 368-383
61. Howell P., Sackin S., and Rustin L. Comparison of speech motor development in stutterers and fluent speakers between 7 and 12 years old. Journal of Fluency Disorders 20 (1995) 243-255
62. Huinck W.J., van Lieshout P.H.H.M., Peters H.F.M., and Hulstijn W. Gestural overlap in consonant clusters: Effects on the fluent speech of stuttering and non-stuttering subjects. Journal of Fluency Disorders 29 (2004) 3-25
63. Ingham R.J., Fox P.T., Costello Ingham J., and Zamarripa F. Is overt stuttered speech a prerequisite for the neural activations associated with chronic developmental stuttering?. Brain and Language 75 (2000) 163-194
64. Jahanshahi M., Rowe J., and Fuller R. Cognitive executive function in dystonia. Movement Disorders 18 (2003) 1470-1481
65. Johansen-Berg H., and Matthews P.M. Attention to movement modulates activity in sensorimotor areas, including primary motor cortex. Experimental Brain Research 142 (2002) 13-24
66. Jonas S. The supplementary motor region and speech emission. Journal of Communication Disorders 14 (1981) 349-373
67. Jones R.D., White A.J., Lawson K.H.C., and Anderson T.J. Visuoperceptual and visuomotor deficits in developmental stutterers: An exploratory study. Human Movement Science 21 (2002) 603-619
68. Jueptner M., and Weiller C. A review of differences between basal ganglia and cerebellar control of movements as revealed by functional imaging studies. Brain 121 (1998) 1437-1449
69. Kamhi A.G., and McOsker T.G. Attention and stuttering: Do stutterers think too much about speech?. Journal of Fluency Disorders 7 (1982) 309-321
70. Kandel E., Schwartz J., and Jessel T. Principles of neural science. 4th ed. (2000), McGraw-Hill, New York, NY pp. 853-867
71. Kelso S. Dynamic patterns: The self-organization of brain and behaviour (1995), MIT Press, Boston, MA
72. Klapp S.T. Reaction time analysis of two types of motor preparation for speech articulation: Action as a sequence of chunks. Journal of Motor Behaviour 35 (2003) 135-150
73. Kolk H., and Postma A. Stuttering as a covert repair phenomenon. In: Curlee R.F., and Siegel G. (Eds). The nature and treatment of stuttering. 2nd ed. (1997), Allyn & Bacon, Needham Heights, MA 182-203
74. Korman M., Raz N., Flash T., and Karni A. Multiple shifts in the representation of a motor sequence during the acquisition of skilled performance. Proceeding of the National Academy of Science USA 100 (2003) 12492-12497
75. Laforce R., and Doyon J. Distinct contributions of the striatum and cerebellum to motor learning. Brain and Cognition 45 (2001) 189-211
76. Lehner M., Taracha E., Wislowska A., Zienowicz M., Maciejak P., Skorzewska A., et al. Neurodevelopmental theories of schizophrenia-preclinical studies. Psychiatria Polska 37 (2003) 627-639
77. Leiner H.C., Leiner A.L., and Dow R.S. Reappraising the cerebellum: What does the hindbrain contribute to the forebrain?. Behavioral Neuroscience 10 (1989) 998-1008
78. Liu X., Tubbesing S., Aziz T., Miall R., and Stein J. Effects of visual feedback on manual tracking and action tremor in Parkinson's disease. Experimental Brain Research 129 (1999) 477-481
79. Logan G.D., and Etherton J.L. What is learned during automatization? The role of attention in constructing an instance. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 20 (1994) 1022-1050
80. Loucks T., and De Nil L. Oral kinesthetic deficits in stuttering evaluated by movement accuracy and tendon vibration. In: Maassen B., Hulstijn W., Kent R.D., Peters H.F.M., and van Lieshout P.H.H.M. (Eds). Speech motor control in normal and disordered speech: Proceedings from the fourth international speech motor conference (2001), Uitgeverij Vantilt, Nijmegen, The Netherlands 307-310
81. Low K., Miller J., and Vierck E. Response slowing in Parkinson's disease: A psychophysiological analysis of premotor and motor processes. Brain 125 (2002) 1980-1994
82. Ludlow C.L., and Loucks T. Stuttering: A dynamic motor control disorder. Journal of Fluency Disorders 28 (2003) 273-295
83. Ludlow C.L., Rosenberg J., Salazar A., Grafman J., and Smutok M. Site of penetrating brain lesions causing chronic acquired stuttering. Annals of Neurology 22 (1987) 60-66
84. Ludlow C.L., Siren K., and Zikira M. Speech production learning in adults with chronic developmental stuttering. In: Hulstijn W., Peters H.F.M., and van Lieshout P.H.H.M. (Eds). Speech production: Motor control, brain research, and fluency disorders: Proceedings from the 3rd world conference on speech motor production and fluency disorders (1997), Elsevier, Amsterdam, The Netherlands 221-506
85. Maguire G.A., Gottschalk L.A., Riley G.D., and Franklin D.L. Risperidone in the treatment of stuttering. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology 20 (2000) 479-482
86. Max L. Stuttering and internal models for sensorimotor control: A theoretical perspective to generate testable hypotheses. In: Maassen B., Kent R.D., Peters H.F.M., van Lieshout P.H.H.M., and Hulstijn W. (Eds). Speech motor control in normal and disordered speech (2004), Oxford University Press, Oxford, NY 357-388
87. Max L., and Yudman E.M. Accuracy and variability of isochronous rhythmic timing across motor systems in stuttering versus nonstuttering individuals. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research 46 (2003) 146-163
88. Mentis M.J., Dhawan V., Feigin A., Delalot D., Zgaljardic D., Edwards C., et al. Early stage Parkinson's disease patients and normal volunteers: Comparative mechanisms of sequence learning. Human Brain Mapping 20 (2003) 246-258
89. Mulligan H., Anderson T., Jones R., Williams M., and Donaldson I. Dysfluency and involuntary movements: A new look at developmental stuttering. International Journal of Neuroscience 109 (2001) 23-46
90. Namasivayam A., and van Lieshout P. Lip kinematics in people who stutter: Comparisons within and across days (2004), Poster session presented at the From Sound to Sense conference, Boston, MA
91. Neumann K., Euler H.A., von Gudenberg W.A., Girard A.L., Heinrich L., Lanfermann H., et al. The nature and treatment of stuttering as revealed by fMRI: A within- and between-group comparison. Journal of Fluency Disorders 28 (2003) 381-410
92. Neumann K., Preibisch C., Euler H.A., Wolff von Gudenberg A., Lanfermann H., Gall V., et al. Cortical plasticity associated with stuttering therapy. Journal of Fluency Disorders 30 (2005) 23-39
93. Newell A., and Rosenbloom P. Mechanisms of skill acquisition and the law of practice. In: Anderson J. (Ed). Cognitive skills and their acquisition (1981), Erlbaum, Hillsdale, N.J 1-56
94. Pasupathy A., and Miller E. Different time courses of learning-related activity in the prefrontal cortex and striatum. Letters to Nature 433 (2005) 873-876
95. Pauls D., Leckman J., and Cohen D. Familial relationship between Gilles de la Tourette Syndrome, attention deficit disorder, learning disability, speech disorders, and stuttering. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 32 (1993) 1044-1050
96. Penfield W., and Welch K. The supplementary motor area of the cerebral cortex: A clinical and experimental study. Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry 66 (1951) 289-317
97. Postma A., Kolk H., and Povel D.J. Speech planning and execution in stutterers. Journal of Fluency Disorders 15 (1990) 49-59
98. Preibisch C., Neumann K., Raab P., Euler H., von Gudenberg A., Lanfermann H., et al. Evidence for compensation for stuttering by the right frontal operculum. Neuroimage 20 (2003) 1356-1364
99. Rauch S.L., and Savage C.R. Neuroimaging and neuropsychology of the striatum: Bridging basic science and clinical practice. Neuropsychiatry of the Basal Ganglia 20 (1997) 741-768
100. Riley G. A stuttering severity instrument for children and adults. 3rd ed. (1994), Pro-Ed, Austin, TX
101. Rowe J., Stephan K., Friston K.J., Frackowiak R., Lees A., and Passingham R.E. Attention to action in Parkinson's disease: impaired frontal connectivity among frontal cortical regions. Brain 125 (2002) 276-289
102. Roy E.A., Saint-Cyr J.A., Taylor A.E., and Lang A.E. Motor sequence learning in Parkinson's disease. International Journal of Neuroscience 73 (1993) 183-194
103. Saint-Cyr J.A. Frontal-striatal circuit functions: Context, sequence, and consequence. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society 9 (2003) 103-127
104. Saint-Cyr J.A., and Taylor A.E. The mobilization of procedural learning: The "key signature" of the basal ganglia. In: Butters N., and Squire L.R. (Eds). Neuropsychology of memory (1992), The Guilford Press, New York, N.Y 188-202
105. Saint-Cyr J.A., Taylor A.E., and Lang A.E. Procedural learning and neostriatal dysfunction in man. Brain 111 (1988) 941-959
106. Saltuklaroglu T., Kalinowski J., and Guntupalli V.K. Towards a common neural substrate in the immediate and effective inhibition of stuttering. International Journal of Neuroscience 114 (2004) 435-450
107. Sawaguchi T., and Goldman-Rakic P. D1 dopamine receptors in prefrontal cortex: Involvement in working memory. Science 251 (1991) 947-950
108. Schmidt R.A., and Wrisberg C.A. Motor learning and performance. 3rd ed. (2004), Human Kinetics Publishers, Champaign, IL
109. Schneider W., Dumais S.T., and Shiffrin R.M. Automatic and control processing and attention. In: Parasuraman R., and Davies D. (Eds). Varieties of attention (1984), Academic Press Inc, Orlando: FL 1-27
110. Schulz G.M., Leon S., and Sulc S. Speech motor learning in Parkinson's disease. In: Maassen B., Hulstijn W., Kent R.D., Peters H.F.M., and van Lieshout P.H.H.M. (Eds). Speech motor control in normal and disordered speech: Proceedings from the fourth international speech motor conference (2001), Uitgeverij Vantilt, Nijmegen, the Netherlands 332-336
111. Seeman P., Bzowej N.H., Guan H.C., Bergeron C., Becker L.E., Reynolds G.P., et al. Human-brain dopamine-receptors in children and aging adults. Synapse 1 (1987) 399-404
112. Seitz R., and Roland P.E. Learning of sequential finger movements in man: A combined kinematic and positron emission tomography (PET) study. European Journal of Neuroscience 4 (1992) 154-165
113. Shizgal P., and Arvanitogiannis A. Gambling on dopamine. Science 299 (2003) 1856-1861
114. Shohamy D., Myers C.E., Grossman S., Sage J., and Gluck M.A. The role of dopamine in cognitive sequence learning: evidence from Parkinson's disease. Behavioural Brain Research 156 (2005) 191-199
115. Siegert R.J., Taylor K.D., Weatherall M., and Abernethy D.A. Is implicit sequence learning impaired in Parkinson's disease? A meta-analysis. Neuropsychology 20 (2006) 490-495
116. Smiley-Oyen A.L., Worringham C.J., and Cross C.L. Motor learning processes in a movement-scaling task in olivopontocerebellar atrophy and Parkinson's disease. Experimental Brain Research 152 (2003) 453-465
117. Smith A., and Kelly E. Stuttering: A dynamic, multifactorial model. In: Curlee R.F., and Seigal G. (Eds). The Nature and Treatment of Stuttering (1997), Allyn and Bacon, Needham Heights, MA 204-217
118. Smith J.G., and McDowall J. Impaired higher order implicit sequence learning on the verbal version of the serial reaction time task in patients with Parkinson's disease. Neuropsychology 18 (2004) 679-691
119. Smith J.G., Siegert R., McDowall J., and Abernethy D. Preserved implicit learning on both the serial reaction time task and artificial grammar in patients with Parkinson's disease. Brain and Cognition 45 (2001) 378-391
120. Smits-Bandstra, S. & De Nil, L. F. (2006). Sequency skill learning and the transition to automaticity in adults who stutter. Dissertation Abstracts International, DAI-B 68/01, 288 (AAT NR22037).
121. Smits-Bandstra S., De Nil L.F., and Rochon E. The transition to increased automaticity during finger sequence learning in adult males who stutter. Journal of Fluency Disorders 31 (2006) 22-42
122. Smits-Bandstra S., De Nil L.F., and Saint-Cyr J.A. Speech and nonspeech sequence skill learning in adults who stutter. Journal of Fluency Disorders 31 (2006) 116-131
123. Sommer M., Koch M.A., Paulus W., Weiller D., and Buchel C. Disconnection of speech-relevant brain areas in persistent developmental stuttering. The Lancet 360 (2002) 380-383
124. Starkweather C.W., Gottwald S., and Halfond M. Stuttering prevention: A clinical method (1990), Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J
125. Thomas V., Reymann J.M., Lieury A., and Allain H. Assessment of procedural memory in Parkinson's disease. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry 20 (1996) 641-650
126. van Lieshout P.H.H.M., Hulstijn W., and Peters H.F.M. From planning to articulation in speech production: What differentiates a person who stutters from a person who does not stutter?. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research 39 (1996) 546-564
127. Van Borsel J., Van Der Made S., and Santens P. Thalamic stuttering: A distinct clinical entity?. Brain and Language 85 (2003) 185-189
128. Van Borsel J., Van Lierde K., Van Cauwenberge P., and Van Orshoven M. Severe acquired stuttering following injury of the left supplementary motor region: A case report. Journal of Fluency Disorders 23 (1998) 49-58
129. Venkatagiri H.S. Slower and incomplete retrieval of speech motor plans is the proximal source of stuttering: Stutters occur when syllable motor plans stored in memory are concatenated to produce the utterance motor plan. Medical Hypotheses 62 (2004) 401-405
130. Walla P., Mayer D., Deecke L., and Thurner S. The lack of focused anticipation of verbal information in stutterers: A magneto encephalographic study. Neuroimage 22 (2004) 1321-1327
131. Weber-Fox C. Neural systems for sentence processing in stuttering. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research 44 (2001) 814-825
132. Webster W.G. Neuropsychological models of stuttering-II: Interhemispheric interference. Neuropsychologia 24 (1986) 737-741
133. Webster W.G. Neural mechanisms underlying stuttering: Evidence from bimanual handwriting performance. Brain and Language 33 (1988) 226-244
134. Webster W.G. Sequence initiation performance by stutterers under conditions of response competition. Brain and Language 36 (1989) 286-300
135. Weinstein J., Caruso A.J., Severing K., and VerHoeve J. Abnormalities of oculomotor control in stutterers [Abstract]. Investigative Ophthalmology and Visual Science 30 (1989) 78
136. Weiss P., Stelmach G.E., and Hefter H. Programming of a movement sequence in Parkinson's disease. Brain 120 (1997) 91-102
137. Westwater H., McDowall J., Siegert R., Mossman S., and Abernethy D. Implicit learning in Parkinson's disease: Evidence from a verbal version of the serial reaction time task. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology 20 (1998) 413-418
138. Wijnen F., and Boers I. Phonological priming effects in stutterers. Journal of Fluency Disorders 19 (1994) 1-20
139. 18F) deoxyglucose study of developmental stuttering. Neuroreport 6 (1995) 501-505
140. Wu J.C., Riley G., Maguire G., Najafi A., and Tang C. PET scan evidence of parallel cerebral systems related to treatment effects: FDG and FDOPA PET scan findings. In: Hulstijn W., Peters H.F.M., and van Lieshout P.H.H.M. (Eds). Speech production: Motor control, brain research, and fluency disorders: Proceedings from the third world conference on speech motor production and fluency disorders (1997), Elsevier, Amsterdam, The Netherlands 329-339
141. Yairi E., and Ambrose N. A longitudinal study of stuttering children: A preliminary report. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research 35 (1992) 755-760
142. Yairi E., Ambrose N., and Cox N. Genetics of stuttering: A critical review. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research 39 (1996) 771-784